• Teaching Skills
• Teaching EFL Business English
• Teaching EFL Grammar
• Teaching EFL Listening
• Teaching EFL Pronunciation
• Teaching EFL Reading
• Teaching EFL with Gestures
• Teaching EFL Writing
• Teaching English for Special Purposes
• Teaching Methods for TEFL
Teaching English for Special Purposes
Teaching English for Special Purposes in the EFL Classroom
Basic Concepts:
Many people, when transitioning to a career in TEFL, forget that they have lots of experience, and sometimes education, in a specialized area. Rather than starting at the bottom rung in TEFL consider finding your own special niche where you can probably make more money, do a better job and enjoy yourself more.
Many people from Information Technology (IT) careers come to TEFL, for example. Their best job strategy would be to seek an English teaching position at a college or university that has an IT specialty. Most occupational specialties in foreign countries need English training. They need it either for university study and papers, research (most international research is published in English), or to run a business.
If you have a background in a special area, it is in your best interest to use it. You will know the specialized vocabulary of the business, will know how the business works and you will even have a curiosity about the business that other teachers won’t have. This makes you ideal to teach in that special niche.
Consider nursing, aviation training, business and marketing, chemicals, general medicine, engineering, hospitality (restaurant, hotel, and tourism industry), IT, law, construction technology, and every other possible major at a university or college. If you have such a skill/knowledge it would be well worth your time to seek employment in that area. DON’T go to the English department of a college or university, go to the department of your specialty and have them recommend you to the English department. You WILL be in demand.
If you have not already read the page on Teaching Business English, read it now.
Download and read the needs analysis worksheet on that page. You can use and adapt those pages to any form of ESP. A thorough needs analysis is the key to your success.
Expanded Concepts:
A couple examples of niche employment that the some people look for are Hospitality English and Business English. Lots of people have previous work experience either in a business or in a hotel or restaurant or tourism setting.
Here’s the difference:
Teach a few reception desk staff in an air conditioned classroom at a 5-star resort on a tropical island or 50 screaming kids in a hot classroom? Teach a small class of businesspeople at corporate headquarters or back to the screaming kindergarteners . . . Up to you . . . ESP has its advantages!
Nothing wrong with kindie kids – they are wonderful to teach, but often
more mature (read older . . .) teachers prefer a more sedate setting.
TEFL Lesson Planning
Lesson Planning for the EFL and ESL Classroom
We have created a podcast to complement this page. You can download it from our podcast page.
Basic Concepts:
A Lesson Plan is simply a step-by-step guide to what an EFL teacher plans to do in the classroom on a given day. The more detailed the step-by-step, the better. Ideally, you could not go to work on a given day and another teacher could read your lesson plan and know exactly how to teach your class on that day. A good lesson plan might even include specific gestures and cues used for various parts of the lesson. That’s how detailed your plan should be.
There are literally hundreds of types of lesson plans, but there is not one format accepted by all schools. Many schools have their own set format, others will let you use whatever format you like. There is; however, some general agreement about what should be included in a good lesson plan.
Generally agreed components of a lesson plan include:
Day/Date:
Lesson Name: What will you call the lesson?
Class/Level: Age, topic, skill level, class name
Materials: List everything you need to teach this lesson. List every possible thing you will need to take to the classroom, and/or obtain from the school to complete the lesson. This list can help you make sure you don’t forget any handouts or special materials that you need to take to the class.
Textbook/Course book name: From what book are you working – or drawing the lesson from?
Unit—title—page number: Specifically where in that book?
Goal/Aim: What are we working towards today. Describe the final result of the lesson in this format -
The students will be able to ___(do what?)________.
Example: The students will be able to ask and answer questions about their hobbies and interests
Grammar Structures Employed: (How are they formed?): Show the structures. Use a structure chart if needed.
Questions and Answers Relevant to your lesson: to be asked during the warm-up to elicit from students what they may or may not know about the topic to be covered.
NOTE: Lesson Begins Here
Warm-up: This includes a review (revision) of the previous lesson linked to this new lesson; questions and answers you have written above, used to elicit conversation using the new structures and function; to show examples of what your students will learn in this lesson. In some countries and with some age groups this may come in the form of a specifically designed game.
Presentation (or ESA format): Note the target language to be taught – and how you will teach it. Include how you will stimulate the student’s interest in the language and how you might elicit from the students the language you are planning to teach. Include details as specific as when you might model structures and dialog – and when you will require a repeated response (choral response) from the students. Include a structure chart for the grammar – or the dialog you intend to teach.
Practice: Include the specific activities and attach any handouts to the lesson plan. Include up to three practice activities – sequencing them from most to least structured – slowly giving the students more freedom.
Production: This is where students really learn and generalize a new language skill. Allow/encourage the students to talk about themselves, their lives, or specific situations using their own information – but focusing on the target language that was taught in the presentation – and practiced in the previous activities. Include exactly what you will ask the students to do – and that you (as throughout the lesson) intend to monitor students and encourage and correct them as needed in their use of the target language.
Conclusion: Discuss/recap what you have studied and learned during the lesson. In some countries and for some ages – this will be followed by a game that uses the target language.
Notes:
Many experienced teachers, once they have methodology set in their mind, write only minimally structured lesson plans as they will have developed a set routine for how they approach each lesson. New teachers should develop the habit though of rigidly following a detailed lesson plan they have written for at least the first six months to a year. This will require some real discipline, but it will pay off in terms of skill development over time.
Sit down after each class and take a few notes about what went great, what went wrong and how you might have done a better job. This will help you a lot in refining your skills. Even very experienced teachers put some serious thought into problems that occurred during class and how they might best be corrected.
Save every lesson plan you write. If you teach a certain book or certain topics repeatedly to students of similar levels (and you will), you’ll find you need only a little polish on the lesson drawing from your notes that you wrote from the previous paragraph.
Expanded Concepts:
You can find literally thousands of EFL/ESL lesson plans on the Internet. Take a look at few and you will rarely see the same format used. But – they will generally have, in one form or another, most of the information indicated above.
Try the website below and see what they have and note the similarities and differences between the lesson formats. Don’t get stuck in a rigid idea of what a lesson plan should look like. You’ll notice many that are called “lesson plans” really aren’t!
The Intenet TESL Journal: EFL and ESL Lessons and Lesson Plans
Here is a “Lesson Plan Format” based on the lesson plan in the Basic Concepts section above.
It will open in a new window – in Word.
Lesson Plan Format
One of the best pages for on the web for understanding what is behind lesson plans is here:
Lesson Planning
and that page includes two very useful (PDF) downloads:
Guide to Lesson Planning and Reflective Teaching Notes
Lesson Planning Sheets and Reflective Teaching Notes
Note: If you are taking any of our certification courses, please review this Ten Point Lesson Plan Checklist to make sure you have covered everything that is important BEFORE you submit your lesson plan project(s).
Now you are ready for the section on Boardwork.
Attention i-to-i
Students!
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Business English
Resort and Hotel English
Teaching TOEFL, IELTS and More
All three for only US$124!
Click here to find out more!
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Kamis, 30 Desember 2010
ESP 1
English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different?
Laurence Anthony
Dept. of Information and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
Okayama University of Science, 1-1 Ridai-cho, Okayama 700, Japan
anthony 'at' ice.ous.ac.jp
1. Growth of ESP
From the early 1960's, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of the most prominent areas of EFL teaching today. Its development is reflected in the increasing number of universities offering an MA in ESP (e.g. The University of Birmingham, and Aston University in the UK) and in the number of ESP courses offered to overseas students in English speaking countries. There is now a well-established international journal dedicated to ESP discussion, "English for Specific Purposes: An international journal", and the ESP SIG groups of the IATEFL and TESOL are always active at their national conferences.
In Japan too, the ESP movement has shown a slow but definite growth over the past few years. In particular, increased interest has been spurred as a result of the Mombusho's decision in 1994 to largely hand over control of university curriculums to the universities themselves. This has led to a rapid growth in English courses aimed at specific disciplines, e.g. English for Chemists, in place of the more traditional 'General English' courses. The ESP community in Japan has also become more defined, with the JACET ESP SIG set up in 1996 (currently with 28 members) and the JALT N-SIG to be formed shortly. Finally, on November 8th this year the ESP community came together as a whole at the first Japan Conference on English for Specific Purposes, held on the campus of Aizu University, Fukushima Prefecture.
2. What is ESP?
As described above, ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would expect the ESP community to have a clear idea about what ESP means. Strangely, however, this does not seem to be the case. In October this year, for example, a very heated debate took place on the TESP-L e-mail discussion list about whether or not English for Academic Purposes (EAP) could be considered part of ESP in general. At the Japan Conference on ESP also, clear differences in how people interpreted the meaning of ESP could be seen. Some people described ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could be specified. Others, however, were more precise, describing it as the teaching of English used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes.
At the conference, guests were honored to have as the main speaker, Tony Dudley-Evans, co-editor of the ESP Journal mentioned above. Very aware of the current confusion amongst the ESP community in Japan, Dudley-Evans set out in his one hour speech to clarify the meaning of ESP, giving an extended definition of ESP in terms of 'absolute' and 'variable' characteristics (see below).
Definition of ESP (Dudley-Evans, 1997)
Absolute Characteristics
1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners
2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves
3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.
Variable Characteristics
1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines
2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General English
3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level
4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.
5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems
The definition Dudley-Evans offers is clearly influenced by that of Strevens (1988), although he has improved it substantially by removing the absolute characteristic that ESP is "in contrast with 'General English'" (Johns et al., 1991: 298), and has included more variable characteristics. The division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP. From the definition, we can see that ESP can but is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range. ESP should be seen simple as an 'approach' to teaching, or what Dudley-Evans describes as an 'attitude of mind'. This is a similar conclusion to that made by Hutchinson et al. (1987:19) who state, "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for learning".
3. Is ESP different to General English?
If we agree with this definition,, we begin to see how broad ESP really is. In fact, one may ask 'What is the difference between the ESP and General English approach?' Hutchinson et al. (1987:53) answer this quite simply, "in theory nothing, in practice a great deal". When their book was written, of course, the last statement was quite true. At the time, teachers of General English courses, while acknowledging that students had a specific purpose for studying English, would rarely conduct a needs analysis to find out what was necessary to actually achieve it. Teachers nowadays, however, are much more aware of the importance of needs analysis, and certainly materials writers think very carefully about the goals of learners at all stages of materials production. Perhaps this demonstrates the influence that the ESP approach has had on English teaching in general. Clearly the line between where General English courses stop and ESP courses start has become very vague indeed.
Rather ironically, while many General English teachers can be described as using an ESP approach, basing their syllabi on a learner needs analysis and their own specialist knowledge of using English for real communication, it is the majority of so-called ESP teachers that are using an approach furthest from that described above. Instead of conducting interviews with specialists in the field, analyzing the language that is required in the profession, or even conducting students' needs analysis, many ESP teachers have become slaves of the published textbooks available, unable to evaluate their suitability based on personal experience, and unwilling to do the necessary analysis of difficult specialist texts to verify their contents.
4. The Future of ESP
If the ESP community hopes to grow and flourish in the future, it is vital that the community as a whole understands what ESP actually represents. Only then, can new members join with confidence, and existing members carry on the practices which have brought ESP to the position it has in EFL teaching today. In Japan in particular, ESP is still in its infancy and so now is the ideal time to form such a consensus. Perhaps this can stem from the Dudley-Evans' definition given in this article but I suspect a more rigorous version will be coming soon, in his book on ESP to be published in 1998. Of course, interested parties are also strongly urged to attend the next Japan Conference on ESP, which is certain to focus again on this topic.
5. References
Dudley-Evans, Tony (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press. (Forthcoming)
Hutchinson, Tom & Waters, Alan (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learner-centered approach. Cambridge University Press.
Johns, Ann M. & Dudley-Evans, Tony (1991). English for Specific Purposes: International in Scope, Specific in Purpose. TESOL Quarterly 25:2, 297-314.
Strevens, P. (1988). ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State of the art (1-13). SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
English for Specific Purposes - Introduction
ESP (English for Specific Purposes) has been referred to as "applied ELT" as the content and aims of any course are determined by the needs of a specific group of learners. ESP is often divided into EAP (English for Academic Purposes) and EOP (English for Occupational Purposes). Further sub-divisions of EOP are sometimes made into business English, professional English (e.g. English for doctors, lawyers) and vocational English (e.g. English for tourism, nursing, aviation, bricklaying). You will find special sections for Business English and English for Academic Purposes elsewhere on this website.
According to Dudley-Evans (2001) the absolute characteristics of ESP are:
• ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learners.
• ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the specialism it serves.
• It is centred not only on the language (grammar, lexis, register), but also the skills, discourses and genres appropriate to those activities.
ESP practitioners are also becoming increasingly involved in intercultural communication and the development of intercultural competence.
For Dudley-Evans (2001) the defining characteristic of ESP is that teaching and materials are based on the results of a needs analysis. The key questions are:
• What do students need to do with English?
• Which of the skills do they need to master and how well?
• Which genres do they need to master either for comprehension or production purposes?
Traditionally ESP courses were typically designed for intermediate or advanced adult learners. Nowadays many students can start to learn academic or vocational English at an earlier age and at a lower level of proficiency.
ESP has become increasingly important as:
• There has been an increase in vocational training and learning throughout the world.
• With the spread of globalisation has come the increasing use of English as the language of international communication. More and more people are using English in a growing number of occupational contexts.
• Students are starting to learn and therefore master general English at a younger age, and so move on to ESP at an earlier age.
An increasing number of learners are taught in English medium schools using approaches such as CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning).
In some English speaking countries governments are launching initiatives to help economic migrants obtain the practical English skills necessary to function in the workplace. For example, the new ESOL for Work Qualifications in the UK are designed to help employers and employees access courses which offer them the functional language skills demanded across a variety of employment sectors. Content includes topics such as customer care and health and safety.
Some teachers are afraid of making the transition from teaching general English to teaching ESP. There is also the danger that the novice ESP teacher will only use materials that they feel comfortable with and will not stretch their learners.
Bell (2002) argues that the depth of knowledge of a subject matter that a teacher requires depends on a number of variables which include:
• How much do the learners know about their specialism?
• Are the students pre-experience or post-experience learners?
• How specific and detailed are the language, skills and genres that the learners need to learn?
Although you perhaps don't need to be an expert in a specialist area, you do need to have some awareness and feel for a particular vocational area. Bell (2002) advocates the three Cs for helping teachers to improve their knowledge and skills in a particular area of ESP.
• Curiosity
The teacher should be interested in the subject area and want to learn more.
• Collaboration
Teachers should seek out subject specialists, show them their work and ask for their feedback.
• Confidence
Confidence will grow as teachers explore the new subject matter, engage with subject specialists and learn from their learners.
Harding (2007) stresses that the general skills that a general English teacher uses e.g. being communicative, using authentic materials and analysing English in a practical way are also applicable to ESP. He also suggests that teachers should:
• Think about what is needed and don't just follow an off-the-shelf course or course book.
• Understand the nature of their students' subject area.
• Work out their language needs in relation to their specialism.
• Use contexts, texts, situations from their subject area.
• Use authentic materials.
• Make the tasks as authentic as possible.
• Motivate the students with variety, relevance and fun.
• Take the classroom into the real world and bring the real world into the classroom.
Like it or not, the days of the EFL generalist teacher may be numbered, so it might just be time to explore the possibility of working in ESP!
Acronyms in ESP
CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning)
EAP (English for Academic Purposes)
EBP (English for Business Purposes)
ESAP (English for Specific Academic Purposes)
EGAP (English for General Academic Purposes)
EMP (English for Medical Purposes)
EOP (English for Occupational Purposes)
EPP (English for Professional Purposes)
EST (English for Science and Technology)
EVP (English for Vocational Purposes)
EWP (English for/in the Workplace)
References
Bell, D (2002) ‘Help! I've been asked to teach a class on ESP!' in IATEFL Voices, Issue 169, Oct/Nov
Dudley-Evans, T (2001) ‘English for Specific Purposes' in The Cambridge Guide to TESOL, Cambridge University Press
Harding, K (2007) English for Specific Purposes, Oxford University Press
English for specific purposes teacher: Job description and activities
English for specific purposes (ESP) teaching involves teaching English with particular attention to a certain area, for example, business, tourism, medicine, the law or engineering. ESP teachers tend to have had some general English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching experience first.
The demand for ESP has grown considerably in recent years, particularly in the area of in-company language training. Much ESP work is done under contract to companies and organisations abroad and those who freelance often find themselves working on short-term assignments in several countries. Specialist courses are available, for instance, in teaching English for business; most require experience and a TEFL qualification.
You will need to have or be prepared to acquire some knowledge of the subject matter and a familiarity with correct terminology. This can be from previous work experience or a related qualification. However, there is still a lot of general language work in ESP although there may be more emphasis on:
• letter writing;
• report-writing;
• using the telephone.
Teaching is often on a one-to one basis, or in small classes. Lessons tend to be very practical and functional rather than concentrating on theory and complex grammar.
For more information see English as a foreign language teacher.
English as a foreign language teacher: Job description and activities
On this page…
1. Job description
2. Typical work activities
Job description
Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) involves teaching English, either in the UK or overseas, to students whose first or main language is not English. The term TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is also used, but only when the students are in the UK.
TEFL teachers work in commercial language schools, schools and institutions of further and higher education throughout the UK and overseas. Some may also teach in industry, whilst others are self-employed. Students may be of all ages and levels and in various class sizes, depending on where you teach. Classes are usually taught in English, even with beginners.
Typical work activities
Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL), like any other teaching job, is about conveying information to students in an interesting way and communicating a love and passion for the English language. Teachers use a wide range of course books, other materials and a variety of audio-visual aids. There is a strong emphasis on dialogue and role-playing, but more formal exercises, language games and literature are also used.
Students learn English for a variety of reasons: to improve their conversational English; to prepare for examinations; to gain entry to an English-speaking college or university; or to use English in their work, so the content of lessons varies. The level of the students' ability may also vary, depending on the setting where the classes take place. The aim of each lesson is to encourage the students to communicate with each other using the structures and vocabulary they have learnt, and to improve the four basic language skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Typical work activities include:
• teaching English;
• classroom management;
• planning, preparing and delivering lessons to a range of classes and age groups;
• preparing and setting tests, examination papers, and exercises;
• marking and providing appropriate feedback on oral and written work;
• devising, writing and producing new materials, including audio and visual resources;
• organising and getting involved in social and cultural activities such as sports competitions, schools parties, dinners, excursions and pricing events appropriately;
• booking coaches and travel for excursions;
• participating in marketing events for the school;
• freelance teaching on a one-to-one basis;
• running specialist courses for adults or business people, which may require knowledge of scientific, technical or commercial terms;
• basic administration such as keeping student registers and attendance records for starters and leavers.
Laurence Anthony
Dept. of Information and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
Okayama University of Science, 1-1 Ridai-cho, Okayama 700, Japan
anthony 'at' ice.ous.ac.jp
1. Growth of ESP
From the early 1960's, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of the most prominent areas of EFL teaching today. Its development is reflected in the increasing number of universities offering an MA in ESP (e.g. The University of Birmingham, and Aston University in the UK) and in the number of ESP courses offered to overseas students in English speaking countries. There is now a well-established international journal dedicated to ESP discussion, "English for Specific Purposes: An international journal", and the ESP SIG groups of the IATEFL and TESOL are always active at their national conferences.
In Japan too, the ESP movement has shown a slow but definite growth over the past few years. In particular, increased interest has been spurred as a result of the Mombusho's decision in 1994 to largely hand over control of university curriculums to the universities themselves. This has led to a rapid growth in English courses aimed at specific disciplines, e.g. English for Chemists, in place of the more traditional 'General English' courses. The ESP community in Japan has also become more defined, with the JACET ESP SIG set up in 1996 (currently with 28 members) and the JALT N-SIG to be formed shortly. Finally, on November 8th this year the ESP community came together as a whole at the first Japan Conference on English for Specific Purposes, held on the campus of Aizu University, Fukushima Prefecture.
2. What is ESP?
As described above, ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would expect the ESP community to have a clear idea about what ESP means. Strangely, however, this does not seem to be the case. In October this year, for example, a very heated debate took place on the TESP-L e-mail discussion list about whether or not English for Academic Purposes (EAP) could be considered part of ESP in general. At the Japan Conference on ESP also, clear differences in how people interpreted the meaning of ESP could be seen. Some people described ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could be specified. Others, however, were more precise, describing it as the teaching of English used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes.
At the conference, guests were honored to have as the main speaker, Tony Dudley-Evans, co-editor of the ESP Journal mentioned above. Very aware of the current confusion amongst the ESP community in Japan, Dudley-Evans set out in his one hour speech to clarify the meaning of ESP, giving an extended definition of ESP in terms of 'absolute' and 'variable' characteristics (see below).
Definition of ESP (Dudley-Evans, 1997)
Absolute Characteristics
1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners
2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves
3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.
Variable Characteristics
1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines
2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General English
3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level
4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.
5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems
The definition Dudley-Evans offers is clearly influenced by that of Strevens (1988), although he has improved it substantially by removing the absolute characteristic that ESP is "in contrast with 'General English'" (Johns et al., 1991: 298), and has included more variable characteristics. The division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP. From the definition, we can see that ESP can but is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range. ESP should be seen simple as an 'approach' to teaching, or what Dudley-Evans describes as an 'attitude of mind'. This is a similar conclusion to that made by Hutchinson et al. (1987:19) who state, "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for learning".
3. Is ESP different to General English?
If we agree with this definition,, we begin to see how broad ESP really is. In fact, one may ask 'What is the difference between the ESP and General English approach?' Hutchinson et al. (1987:53) answer this quite simply, "in theory nothing, in practice a great deal". When their book was written, of course, the last statement was quite true. At the time, teachers of General English courses, while acknowledging that students had a specific purpose for studying English, would rarely conduct a needs analysis to find out what was necessary to actually achieve it. Teachers nowadays, however, are much more aware of the importance of needs analysis, and certainly materials writers think very carefully about the goals of learners at all stages of materials production. Perhaps this demonstrates the influence that the ESP approach has had on English teaching in general. Clearly the line between where General English courses stop and ESP courses start has become very vague indeed.
Rather ironically, while many General English teachers can be described as using an ESP approach, basing their syllabi on a learner needs analysis and their own specialist knowledge of using English for real communication, it is the majority of so-called ESP teachers that are using an approach furthest from that described above. Instead of conducting interviews with specialists in the field, analyzing the language that is required in the profession, or even conducting students' needs analysis, many ESP teachers have become slaves of the published textbooks available, unable to evaluate their suitability based on personal experience, and unwilling to do the necessary analysis of difficult specialist texts to verify their contents.
4. The Future of ESP
If the ESP community hopes to grow and flourish in the future, it is vital that the community as a whole understands what ESP actually represents. Only then, can new members join with confidence, and existing members carry on the practices which have brought ESP to the position it has in EFL teaching today. In Japan in particular, ESP is still in its infancy and so now is the ideal time to form such a consensus. Perhaps this can stem from the Dudley-Evans' definition given in this article but I suspect a more rigorous version will be coming soon, in his book on ESP to be published in 1998. Of course, interested parties are also strongly urged to attend the next Japan Conference on ESP, which is certain to focus again on this topic.
5. References
Dudley-Evans, Tony (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press. (Forthcoming)
Hutchinson, Tom & Waters, Alan (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learner-centered approach. Cambridge University Press.
Johns, Ann M. & Dudley-Evans, Tony (1991). English for Specific Purposes: International in Scope, Specific in Purpose. TESOL Quarterly 25:2, 297-314.
Strevens, P. (1988). ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State of the art (1-13). SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
English for Specific Purposes - Introduction
ESP (English for Specific Purposes) has been referred to as "applied ELT" as the content and aims of any course are determined by the needs of a specific group of learners. ESP is often divided into EAP (English for Academic Purposes) and EOP (English for Occupational Purposes). Further sub-divisions of EOP are sometimes made into business English, professional English (e.g. English for doctors, lawyers) and vocational English (e.g. English for tourism, nursing, aviation, bricklaying). You will find special sections for Business English and English for Academic Purposes elsewhere on this website.
According to Dudley-Evans (2001) the absolute characteristics of ESP are:
• ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learners.
• ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the specialism it serves.
• It is centred not only on the language (grammar, lexis, register), but also the skills, discourses and genres appropriate to those activities.
ESP practitioners are also becoming increasingly involved in intercultural communication and the development of intercultural competence.
For Dudley-Evans (2001) the defining characteristic of ESP is that teaching and materials are based on the results of a needs analysis. The key questions are:
• What do students need to do with English?
• Which of the skills do they need to master and how well?
• Which genres do they need to master either for comprehension or production purposes?
Traditionally ESP courses were typically designed for intermediate or advanced adult learners. Nowadays many students can start to learn academic or vocational English at an earlier age and at a lower level of proficiency.
ESP has become increasingly important as:
• There has been an increase in vocational training and learning throughout the world.
• With the spread of globalisation has come the increasing use of English as the language of international communication. More and more people are using English in a growing number of occupational contexts.
• Students are starting to learn and therefore master general English at a younger age, and so move on to ESP at an earlier age.
An increasing number of learners are taught in English medium schools using approaches such as CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning).
In some English speaking countries governments are launching initiatives to help economic migrants obtain the practical English skills necessary to function in the workplace. For example, the new ESOL for Work Qualifications in the UK are designed to help employers and employees access courses which offer them the functional language skills demanded across a variety of employment sectors. Content includes topics such as customer care and health and safety.
Some teachers are afraid of making the transition from teaching general English to teaching ESP. There is also the danger that the novice ESP teacher will only use materials that they feel comfortable with and will not stretch their learners.
Bell (2002) argues that the depth of knowledge of a subject matter that a teacher requires depends on a number of variables which include:
• How much do the learners know about their specialism?
• Are the students pre-experience or post-experience learners?
• How specific and detailed are the language, skills and genres that the learners need to learn?
Although you perhaps don't need to be an expert in a specialist area, you do need to have some awareness and feel for a particular vocational area. Bell (2002) advocates the three Cs for helping teachers to improve their knowledge and skills in a particular area of ESP.
• Curiosity
The teacher should be interested in the subject area and want to learn more.
• Collaboration
Teachers should seek out subject specialists, show them their work and ask for their feedback.
• Confidence
Confidence will grow as teachers explore the new subject matter, engage with subject specialists and learn from their learners.
Harding (2007) stresses that the general skills that a general English teacher uses e.g. being communicative, using authentic materials and analysing English in a practical way are also applicable to ESP. He also suggests that teachers should:
• Think about what is needed and don't just follow an off-the-shelf course or course book.
• Understand the nature of their students' subject area.
• Work out their language needs in relation to their specialism.
• Use contexts, texts, situations from their subject area.
• Use authentic materials.
• Make the tasks as authentic as possible.
• Motivate the students with variety, relevance and fun.
• Take the classroom into the real world and bring the real world into the classroom.
Like it or not, the days of the EFL generalist teacher may be numbered, so it might just be time to explore the possibility of working in ESP!
Acronyms in ESP
CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning)
EAP (English for Academic Purposes)
EBP (English for Business Purposes)
ESAP (English for Specific Academic Purposes)
EGAP (English for General Academic Purposes)
EMP (English for Medical Purposes)
EOP (English for Occupational Purposes)
EPP (English for Professional Purposes)
EST (English for Science and Technology)
EVP (English for Vocational Purposes)
EWP (English for/in the Workplace)
References
Bell, D (2002) ‘Help! I've been asked to teach a class on ESP!' in IATEFL Voices, Issue 169, Oct/Nov
Dudley-Evans, T (2001) ‘English for Specific Purposes' in The Cambridge Guide to TESOL, Cambridge University Press
Harding, K (2007) English for Specific Purposes, Oxford University Press
English for specific purposes teacher: Job description and activities
English for specific purposes (ESP) teaching involves teaching English with particular attention to a certain area, for example, business, tourism, medicine, the law or engineering. ESP teachers tend to have had some general English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching experience first.
The demand for ESP has grown considerably in recent years, particularly in the area of in-company language training. Much ESP work is done under contract to companies and organisations abroad and those who freelance often find themselves working on short-term assignments in several countries. Specialist courses are available, for instance, in teaching English for business; most require experience and a TEFL qualification.
You will need to have or be prepared to acquire some knowledge of the subject matter and a familiarity with correct terminology. This can be from previous work experience or a related qualification. However, there is still a lot of general language work in ESP although there may be more emphasis on:
• letter writing;
• report-writing;
• using the telephone.
Teaching is often on a one-to one basis, or in small classes. Lessons tend to be very practical and functional rather than concentrating on theory and complex grammar.
For more information see English as a foreign language teacher.
English as a foreign language teacher: Job description and activities
On this page…
1. Job description
2. Typical work activities
Job description
Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) involves teaching English, either in the UK or overseas, to students whose first or main language is not English. The term TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is also used, but only when the students are in the UK.
TEFL teachers work in commercial language schools, schools and institutions of further and higher education throughout the UK and overseas. Some may also teach in industry, whilst others are self-employed. Students may be of all ages and levels and in various class sizes, depending on where you teach. Classes are usually taught in English, even with beginners.
Typical work activities
Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL), like any other teaching job, is about conveying information to students in an interesting way and communicating a love and passion for the English language. Teachers use a wide range of course books, other materials and a variety of audio-visual aids. There is a strong emphasis on dialogue and role-playing, but more formal exercises, language games and literature are also used.
Students learn English for a variety of reasons: to improve their conversational English; to prepare for examinations; to gain entry to an English-speaking college or university; or to use English in their work, so the content of lessons varies. The level of the students' ability may also vary, depending on the setting where the classes take place. The aim of each lesson is to encourage the students to communicate with each other using the structures and vocabulary they have learnt, and to improve the four basic language skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Typical work activities include:
• teaching English;
• classroom management;
• planning, preparing and delivering lessons to a range of classes and age groups;
• preparing and setting tests, examination papers, and exercises;
• marking and providing appropriate feedback on oral and written work;
• devising, writing and producing new materials, including audio and visual resources;
• organising and getting involved in social and cultural activities such as sports competitions, schools parties, dinners, excursions and pricing events appropriately;
• booking coaches and travel for excursions;
• participating in marketing events for the school;
• freelance teaching on a one-to-one basis;
• running specialist courses for adults or business people, which may require knowledge of scientific, technical or commercial terms;
• basic administration such as keeping student registers and attendance records for starters and leavers.
Minggu, 19 Desember 2010
Friend
"Aku mengenalmu lewat jiwa,
Bukan lewat mata..
Aku menjadikan mu saudara lewat hati,
Ku tak tahu,
Seperti apa aku dalam pandangan mu..
...Se-layak apa aku dalam ukhuwah mu..
Tapi yang aku tahu..
Meski dengan keterbatasanku,
Berbalut kekuranganku..
Aku menulis nama mu dihatiku,
Sejak awal,
Dan..
Takkan pernah terganti,
Apalagi terhapus..
Sebagai,
'SAUDARA' dihatiku..
Kemarin, hari ini ataupun nanti..
Bukan lewat mata..
Aku menjadikan mu saudara lewat hati,
Ku tak tahu,
Seperti apa aku dalam pandangan mu..
...Se-layak apa aku dalam ukhuwah mu..
Tapi yang aku tahu..
Meski dengan keterbatasanku,
Berbalut kekuranganku..
Aku menulis nama mu dihatiku,
Sejak awal,
Dan..
Takkan pernah terganti,
Apalagi terhapus..
Sebagai,
'SAUDARA' dihatiku..
Kemarin, hari ini ataupun nanti..
How to Handle Being Lied To
The purpose of this article isn't to deal with the sudden mistrust and suspicion that a lie will bring. I wrote other articles dealing with that. This article is on how to deal with the lie itself.
NEVER REACT EMOTIONALLY TO A LIE
Every lie will hurt. In some cases, they will hurt deeply. And you will have strong emotional reactions to a lie. But there needs to be a point where you step outside the pain and look at it objectively. Anger, rage, or any sort of emotional reaction will only verify to the other person the need to lie in the first place.
If a wife knew of her husband's jealousy issue and lied about a brief conversation she had with another man, even an innocent one, and her husband caught her at the lie and became furious, it will only verify to her that she just needs to be more careful about her future lies.
Take time to settle down before addressing the lie. You may need to pretend that the lie was told to someone else, not you. You need to be somewhat objective before you can do anything about it.
YOU MUST CONFRONT THE LIE IN A CALM RATIONAL MANNER
A lie cannot go unaddressed. With that in mind, you need to know that the end result will never be satisfying to you. You won't leave a conversation about a lie feeling good or at ease. It's just the nature of the beast.
Your goal is to demonstrate maturity and rationalization in front of the person that lied to you. You want to get them to realize that lying to you was not only unnecessary, but a complete waste of time.
It may be that you need to get some counseling, but the person who lied to you won't even consider it if you aren't calm and rational. You need to talk. You need to describe your fears about potential problems that the lie produces. There is no need to say things like:
Again, all this needs to be done calmly and rationally.
YOU NEED TO UNDERSTAND WHY YOU WERE LIED TO
The basic reasons why people lie are these:
The reason for the lie will give you insight into their character and thinking. If someone was just trying to get me to think more highly of him or her, I'd be much more inclined to dismiss the lie. But if they were trying to hurt me with the lie, it would be much tougher to trust and dismiss it.
So try and figure out why you were lied to. You aren't necessarily even looking for specifics of a particular lie. Rather you just want to know the purpose of the lie, what they were trying to accomplish.
A fear can be easily dealt with by a loving friend, parent, or spouse. But anger and selfishness are two more complicated problems. Knowing why will help you in what you can do.
FIND A WAY TO FORGIVE THE LIE
I didn't say that you had to find a way to trust again. Forgiveness will release you from the pain and burden of the lie. If you can't forgive, you'll carry a burden much too heavy to carry. It will cripple you emotionally and prevent you from having any strength to actually fix the relationship.
Forgiveness is for you, not the person that lied to you. You forgive them so that you can deal with the situation and hopefully grow beyond it.
NEVER REACT EMOTIONALLY TO A LIE
Every lie will hurt. In some cases, they will hurt deeply. And you will have strong emotional reactions to a lie. But there needs to be a point where you step outside the pain and look at it objectively. Anger, rage, or any sort of emotional reaction will only verify to the other person the need to lie in the first place.
If a wife knew of her husband's jealousy issue and lied about a brief conversation she had with another man, even an innocent one, and her husband caught her at the lie and became furious, it will only verify to her that she just needs to be more careful about her future lies.
Take time to settle down before addressing the lie. You may need to pretend that the lie was told to someone else, not you. You need to be somewhat objective before you can do anything about it.
YOU MUST CONFRONT THE LIE IN A CALM RATIONAL MANNER
A lie cannot go unaddressed. With that in mind, you need to know that the end result will never be satisfying to you. You won't leave a conversation about a lie feeling good or at ease. It's just the nature of the beast.
Your goal is to demonstrate maturity and rationalization in front of the person that lied to you. You want to get them to realize that lying to you was not only unnecessary, but a complete waste of time.
It may be that you need to get some counseling, but the person who lied to you won't even consider it if you aren't calm and rational. You need to talk. You need to describe your fears about potential problems that the lie produces. There is no need to say things like:
- How could you lie to me!
- How dare you!
- You lying pig (or other worthless expletive)!
- I hate you!
Again, all this needs to be done calmly and rationally.
YOU NEED TO UNDERSTAND WHY YOU WERE LIED TO
The basic reasons why people lie are these:
- To get out of trouble.
- To gain something.
- Because they fear something.
- To be thought of better.
- To hurt someone.
The reason for the lie will give you insight into their character and thinking. If someone was just trying to get me to think more highly of him or her, I'd be much more inclined to dismiss the lie. But if they were trying to hurt me with the lie, it would be much tougher to trust and dismiss it.
So try and figure out why you were lied to. You aren't necessarily even looking for specifics of a particular lie. Rather you just want to know the purpose of the lie, what they were trying to accomplish.
A fear can be easily dealt with by a loving friend, parent, or spouse. But anger and selfishness are two more complicated problems. Knowing why will help you in what you can do.
FIND A WAY TO FORGIVE THE LIE
I didn't say that you had to find a way to trust again. Forgiveness will release you from the pain and burden of the lie. If you can't forgive, you'll carry a burden much too heavy to carry. It will cripple you emotionally and prevent you from having any strength to actually fix the relationship.
Forgiveness is for you, not the person that lied to you. You forgive them so that you can deal with the situation and hopefully grow beyond it.
How to Deal With Selfish People?
All selfish people are self-centered and don't care about anyone else but themselves which can mean it is difficult to know how to deal with selfish people. Everything has revolved around them for so long that they don't even realize they are destroying their relationships with their friends or loved ones.
But if we want to keep them around, especially the ones close to us, we have to learn how to deal with them. Their never ending story about themselves can be very annoying to some people, and the best thing to do is change the subject and move on.
However, there are some more ways to help us deal with selfish people. Here are some of the best ways to deal with selfish people.
1) Have patience
If this person is troubled the best way to deal with their selfishness is to try to bring them out of their negative frame of mind. For example, you can probably ask them why they have been rude and critical of others.
You can mention that noone is perfect and that they might be able to open up to you and explain what is causing them to behave this way so you can understand them better. The best way is to be patient with them.
You may be able to help them feel better about themselves and about others.
2) Be sensitive
You also have to consider that someone who is rude and selfish may actually have some personal problems and feel that they just can't share what is going on in their lives. They are rude because they do not want to get close to people and do not want to feel hurt by others.
Try to be sensitive and be understanding about their past and perhaps they will see their own self-interest and become less critical of others. In other words, show that you are trying to help them.
3) Limit Your Interaction
If nothing else works you may have to limit your interactions with the selfish person as much as possible while still keeping them in your life. There are a few strategies that have been successful dealing with selfish people.
For example, be kind, and stay cool. They know that they're difficult and won't respect you if you pretend they aren't. If you have a sense of humor, use it. Everyone loves to laugh. But keep the interaction short and sweet until you see some change.
4) Set boundaries
It would be easier to give some guidance than it is to set boundaries, but you may have to draw the line if the relationship is damaging to you. It may be your only choice if you must stay involved with this person.
Remind them of the situations that were painful for you and ask why they act the way they do. And don't accept excuses for their behavior because excuses are a way to avoid responsibility. You either build relationships through talking it out or you have to set boundaries if talking doesn't solve the problem.
Above all, don't judge them.
5) Distance Yourself
Don't let selfish people mistreat you. The best way is to simply stop cooperating with their mistreatment. Also, you don't want to repeat this kind of behavior. That is why distancing yourself may be wise.
The reason they are mistreating people is because it is rewarding for them in some way. So the answer is to stop cooperating and separate yourself from them.
Selfish people choose to be negative and pursue behavior that hurts others so they can feel better about themselves. Ultimately, surrounding yourselves with negative people can arouse negativity in you. It's important to make good decisions about who you associate with.
And that's how to deal with selfish people!
But if we want to keep them around, especially the ones close to us, we have to learn how to deal with them. Their never ending story about themselves can be very annoying to some people, and the best thing to do is change the subject and move on.
However, there are some more ways to help us deal with selfish people. Here are some of the best ways to deal with selfish people.
1) Have patience
If this person is troubled the best way to deal with their selfishness is to try to bring them out of their negative frame of mind. For example, you can probably ask them why they have been rude and critical of others.
You can mention that noone is perfect and that they might be able to open up to you and explain what is causing them to behave this way so you can understand them better. The best way is to be patient with them.
You may be able to help them feel better about themselves and about others.
2) Be sensitive
You also have to consider that someone who is rude and selfish may actually have some personal problems and feel that they just can't share what is going on in their lives. They are rude because they do not want to get close to people and do not want to feel hurt by others.
Try to be sensitive and be understanding about their past and perhaps they will see their own self-interest and become less critical of others. In other words, show that you are trying to help them.
3) Limit Your Interaction
If nothing else works you may have to limit your interactions with the selfish person as much as possible while still keeping them in your life. There are a few strategies that have been successful dealing with selfish people.
For example, be kind, and stay cool. They know that they're difficult and won't respect you if you pretend they aren't. If you have a sense of humor, use it. Everyone loves to laugh. But keep the interaction short and sweet until you see some change.
4) Set boundaries
It would be easier to give some guidance than it is to set boundaries, but you may have to draw the line if the relationship is damaging to you. It may be your only choice if you must stay involved with this person.
Remind them of the situations that were painful for you and ask why they act the way they do. And don't accept excuses for their behavior because excuses are a way to avoid responsibility. You either build relationships through talking it out or you have to set boundaries if talking doesn't solve the problem.
Above all, don't judge them.
5) Distance Yourself
Don't let selfish people mistreat you. The best way is to simply stop cooperating with their mistreatment. Also, you don't want to repeat this kind of behavior. That is why distancing yourself may be wise.
The reason they are mistreating people is because it is rewarding for them in some way. So the answer is to stop cooperating and separate yourself from them.
Selfish people choose to be negative and pursue behavior that hurts others so they can feel better about themselves. Ultimately, surrounding yourselves with negative people can arouse negativity in you. It's important to make good decisions about who you associate with.
And that's how to deal with selfish people!
A True Friend Does Not Break Her Promise
This is an article that many of my followers have been after me to write. This may be one of those things that you may find unforgivable and basically you may decide to end you friendship. But before you go that far consider if it is something that you can forgive, if that is how you decide to forgive, be sure to keep your promise and forgive your friend.
Now remember a person that keeps her word or promise is a reliable person and someone you can trust. This type of friend is one you can feel confident about, when she makes a promise, she keeps it. That is a true friend, true friends do not make promises that they can not keep. A true friend should make sure she is capable of keeping the promise before she delivers you that promise. I suggest that if your friend tells you that she may not be able to keep her promise but will do her best to keep it, you should tell her thank you and that you understand. You see we all make mistakes but your friend should not ever set you up to a false expectation as that is no way to treat a friend.
I suggest that you do not make a promise to anyone or yourself that you know you can not fulfill. Once you make such a promise you should do everything in your power to keep it, a broken promise is bad for friendship and shows a lack of your own self respect. At least make a good attempt at completing it and ask for forgiveness from your friend and your God. At least you will have done the best that you could.
It is an important trait to know that your friend has faith in your word. The best suggestion for you here is to get control over yourself and your promises. The words that you speak to make a promise to your friend need to command respect. Every promise that you make should receive a commitment from you to fill it. If you make a promise half heartedly then you really do not show respect to your friend and certainly have little respect for yourself. Your promise or a promise from your friend is essentially your word or your friend's word, and if that word is no good, what do you have? A true friend should care enough about you and herself to not break her promise. This lack of character may be a deal breaker.
Just remember that your friends will judge your credibility on how well you keep your word. A broken promise will surely hurt anyone's image and keeping your promise will make you feel good about yourself. For sure it is your choice. And as always you must live well to be well.
Think and act this as follows:
I think. I read. I care. I inform. I coach.Now remember a person that keeps her word or promise is a reliable person and someone you can trust. This type of friend is one you can feel confident about, when she makes a promise, she keeps it. That is a true friend, true friends do not make promises that they can not keep. A true friend should make sure she is capable of keeping the promise before she delivers you that promise. I suggest that if your friend tells you that she may not be able to keep her promise but will do her best to keep it, you should tell her thank you and that you understand. You see we all make mistakes but your friend should not ever set you up to a false expectation as that is no way to treat a friend.
I suggest that you do not make a promise to anyone or yourself that you know you can not fulfill. Once you make such a promise you should do everything in your power to keep it, a broken promise is bad for friendship and shows a lack of your own self respect. At least make a good attempt at completing it and ask for forgiveness from your friend and your God. At least you will have done the best that you could.
It is an important trait to know that your friend has faith in your word. The best suggestion for you here is to get control over yourself and your promises. The words that you speak to make a promise to your friend need to command respect. Every promise that you make should receive a commitment from you to fill it. If you make a promise half heartedly then you really do not show respect to your friend and certainly have little respect for yourself. Your promise or a promise from your friend is essentially your word or your friend's word, and if that word is no good, what do you have? A true friend should care enough about you and herself to not break her promise. This lack of character may be a deal breaker.
Just remember that your friends will judge your credibility on how well you keep your word. A broken promise will surely hurt anyone's image and keeping your promise will make you feel good about yourself. For sure it is your choice. And as always you must live well to be well.
Think and act this as follows:
The Beauty of Friendship
Friends are people who will be there for us when we really need someone the most, but then there are a few who are to enjoy with us and run away when you need someone the most. There are the some that let us be ourselves but there is always that one person who is so close to you and you know that this person will understand even your silence. This person is more as a family to you and you know even at 3:00 AM you can make this one phone call and this person will still be there for you.
Friendship is one of the most beautiful relations you can have. And it is even better with that special friend who you love the My best friend and I fight like crazy, at times I even pull her leg saying that I am going to get married to her. We both share one main thing in common, we both love dogs and the best part is she has one of the pups that my lab had given birth to.
We both keep on talking about the pups and telling each other how naughty they are. Sometimes she even asks me what to do if a dog is not well since she feels that I know a lot about dogs since I have had them for the past 11 years.
Apart from our dogs, we talk about our problems, about things that bother us. We make it a point to talk on a regular base. No doubt, there are days where she gets upset with me or vice versa, but then in the next second, the anger is gone and we are happy again. Between the both of us, I am short tempered but with her around, I cannot be angry for too long, she will always find a way to make me laugh.
Life has not been fair to both of us, but we still are able to trust each other and know that no matter what happens there is this one person on this earth to whom we do not need to prove ourselves. There is one person you do not need to explain what and why you did it. Who does not care if you are right or wrong but still stands by you in front of everyone and shouts at you if you are wrong when no one is around.
This person just loves you for whom you are. This one person can see things, which you also may not be able to see. This one person knows you so well that even if someone comes and tries to tell them something bad about you, it still does not change a thing since they know who you really are and is confident about whatever you do and will always stand by you. This person is always there for you no matter what the situation is and advises you or goes out of their way to help you. This person is your guide, your friend. To this special person I must say a big thank you who thought me the BEAUTY OF FRIENDSHIP. So in short of you had to say what a friend is then:-
F-forgiveness
R-respect
I-Impartial
E-Emotional
N-Nurture
D-Dependable
And Friendship would be
F-Fun
R-Rational
I-Intuition
E- Endurance
N-Never Ending
D-Devotion
S-support
H-honesty
I-inspiration
P-Perfect
Friendship is one of the most beautiful relations you can have. And it is even better with that special friend who you love the My best friend and I fight like crazy, at times I even pull her leg saying that I am going to get married to her. We both share one main thing in common, we both love dogs and the best part is she has one of the pups that my lab had given birth to.
We both keep on talking about the pups and telling each other how naughty they are. Sometimes she even asks me what to do if a dog is not well since she feels that I know a lot about dogs since I have had them for the past 11 years.
Apart from our dogs, we talk about our problems, about things that bother us. We make it a point to talk on a regular base. No doubt, there are days where she gets upset with me or vice versa, but then in the next second, the anger is gone and we are happy again. Between the both of us, I am short tempered but with her around, I cannot be angry for too long, she will always find a way to make me laugh.
Life has not been fair to both of us, but we still are able to trust each other and know that no matter what happens there is this one person on this earth to whom we do not need to prove ourselves. There is one person you do not need to explain what and why you did it. Who does not care if you are right or wrong but still stands by you in front of everyone and shouts at you if you are wrong when no one is around.
This person just loves you for whom you are. This one person can see things, which you also may not be able to see. This one person knows you so well that even if someone comes and tries to tell them something bad about you, it still does not change a thing since they know who you really are and is confident about whatever you do and will always stand by you. This person is always there for you no matter what the situation is and advises you or goes out of their way to help you. This person is your guide, your friend. To this special person I must say a big thank you who thought me the BEAUTY OF FRIENDSHIP. So in short of you had to say what a friend is then:-
F-forgiveness
R-respect
I-Impartial
E-Emotional
N-Nurture
D-Dependable
And Friendship would be
F-Fun
R-Rational
I-Intuition
E- Endurance
N-Never Ending
D-Devotion
S-support
H-honesty
I-inspiration
P-Perfect
Stop Caring What Other People Think Of You, To Make More Friends
When you care what other people think, you are imprisoned by other people's opinions of you. You cannot do what you want to, because you are paralyzed with fear, and in the long run, you miss out on doing what will make you truly happy. Furthermore, when you go around seeking other people's approval, you turn them off and often you can come across as being fake, or try hard.
Why do you care what other people think?
The reality is, that you care what others think, because you are unsure of who you are, and what you believe. Human beings are evolutionarily designed to respond to people who act with certainty for this reason. The leader does not care what others think, but acts based on his or her own personal standards.
The best book I've ever read on the subject of not caring what other people think, is "Fountainhead" but Ayn Rand. She is a controversial, if not brilliant writer. She goes into detail, on the subject of caring what other people think. She calls these people, "second handers" because they are always defining themselves based on the opinions of other people therefore they can only experience life in a second hand way.
After reading that book I came up with an analogy which works for me. I call people who care what other people think "mirrors" because they are always looking into other people to find their own reflection. Everything a mirror does, is in comparison to other people. A mirror spends time chasing superficial things in order to fake prestige and high value, but the mirror knows that this is not the truth, and is unhappy. This is why I think many rich people are so unhappy.
Symptoms of mirror behavior:
Seeking approval, apologizing too much, asking other people's opinions too much, boasting, and bragging. Mirrors appear to be happy but can never be truly fulfilled, because societal standards are too difficult to live up to.
Mirrors don't know what they really want and cannot be truly happy. When you concern yourself with what other people think, it becomes hard to tell if you want to do something purely because it makes you happy, or because you want to impress other people.
The worst part of caring what other people think, is that while you care about what other people think, they don't even know what they think, or why they think it. Most of what people know is based on unverified information. On some level, they know this. They haven't proven what they believe, therefore, they're not sure how much they believe it.
In fact most people hold many beliefs that contradict each other, and they're never quite sure when to believe one thing over another. Christians believe fornication is bad, yet we all know how much we love sex. We live an a rational society, yet we all get spooked by ghosts when we watch horror movies. We're told "look before you leap", then we're told, "He who hesitates is lost."
Most people are simply following the most confident person in the room. This is why confidence is so important. The truth is, you can get away with just about anything if you do it with enough confidence. A little confidence can change public opinion in an instant. People just assume that if you are confident you must have a good reason to be, and they listen to what you say.
There is absolutely no coincidence that all of our world leaders are considered charismatic. The opposite of caring what other people think, is charisma. I read in, "The Art Of Seduction," that people who had charisma acted with such certainty, and they had such a fire in their eyes, that they were considered to have heard the voice of god. And everyone followed them.
Stop caring what other people think about you. Its simply a trick you've played on yourself, because you aren't sure who you are and what you believe. If you care what other people think, making friends becomes harder and you will lack the ability to make people like and follow you. I have a blog dedicated to making more friends and rising to the top of you social circle, but sure to visit!
Why do you care what other people think?
The reality is, that you care what others think, because you are unsure of who you are, and what you believe. Human beings are evolutionarily designed to respond to people who act with certainty for this reason. The leader does not care what others think, but acts based on his or her own personal standards.
The best book I've ever read on the subject of not caring what other people think, is "Fountainhead" but Ayn Rand. She is a controversial, if not brilliant writer. She goes into detail, on the subject of caring what other people think. She calls these people, "second handers" because they are always defining themselves based on the opinions of other people therefore they can only experience life in a second hand way.
After reading that book I came up with an analogy which works for me. I call people who care what other people think "mirrors" because they are always looking into other people to find their own reflection. Everything a mirror does, is in comparison to other people. A mirror spends time chasing superficial things in order to fake prestige and high value, but the mirror knows that this is not the truth, and is unhappy. This is why I think many rich people are so unhappy.
Symptoms of mirror behavior:
Seeking approval, apologizing too much, asking other people's opinions too much, boasting, and bragging. Mirrors appear to be happy but can never be truly fulfilled, because societal standards are too difficult to live up to.
Mirrors don't know what they really want and cannot be truly happy. When you concern yourself with what other people think, it becomes hard to tell if you want to do something purely because it makes you happy, or because you want to impress other people.
The worst part of caring what other people think, is that while you care about what other people think, they don't even know what they think, or why they think it. Most of what people know is based on unverified information. On some level, they know this. They haven't proven what they believe, therefore, they're not sure how much they believe it.
In fact most people hold many beliefs that contradict each other, and they're never quite sure when to believe one thing over another. Christians believe fornication is bad, yet we all know how much we love sex. We live an a rational society, yet we all get spooked by ghosts when we watch horror movies. We're told "look before you leap", then we're told, "He who hesitates is lost."
Most people are simply following the most confident person in the room. This is why confidence is so important. The truth is, you can get away with just about anything if you do it with enough confidence. A little confidence can change public opinion in an instant. People just assume that if you are confident you must have a good reason to be, and they listen to what you say.
There is absolutely no coincidence that all of our world leaders are considered charismatic. The opposite of caring what other people think, is charisma. I read in, "The Art Of Seduction," that people who had charisma acted with such certainty, and they had such a fire in their eyes, that they were considered to have heard the voice of god. And everyone followed them.
Stop caring what other people think about you. Its simply a trick you've played on yourself, because you aren't sure who you are and what you believe. If you care what other people think, making friends becomes harder and you will lack the ability to make people like and follow you. I have a blog dedicated to making more friends and rising to the top of you social circle, but sure to visit!
How to Talk to Strangers Explained
No wonder we have trouble knowing how to talk to strangers. As we grew up mom always told us not to talk to strangers.
There was a reason for this. It wasn't to be mean to us or to others, but for our safety. Our society teaches us that strangers can hurt young people. As we grow up this belief stays with us, and unfortunately prevents us from meeting a lot of very good and caring people. However, there are things you can do to help when you are talking to strangers.
Let Go
First, let go of those things that mom and society has taught you about strangers. Most people are good and don't hurt other people, so let go of the idea that strangers are bad people.
Be Prepared
Next, be prepared to be ignored by someone you don't know if you try to talk to them. This will be easier to accept when you understand that other people have been taught the same thing you have about talking to strangers. Don't take brush offs personally because it not about you as a person, but what they have been taught, just like you.
Keep Things Basic
When first beginning to talk to strangers keep the conversation very basic and impersonal. Talk about the weather, or about something you notice regarding your surroundings or something else that is superficial and non-threatening to talk about. It's important to keep in mind that how you say something is much more important than what you say.
Speaking of which, if you are talking with a stranger it's not a very good idea to use big words to try to impress them with. In fact, this is risky because you don't even know if the person will understand what you are talking about and misjudge you as that kind of person mom taught them about. So, keep your conversation simple and very non-personal.
Trust People
That's right! Trust people. Our society has seriously damaged our trust for our fellow man by instilling in us that everyone is out to hurt us. But the reality is that there are few people, if any at all, that are out to hurt us. The best way to overcome this is take a chance and talk to strangers (in safe environments).
Build Your Trust
One way to build your trust in other people that you don't know is to go out to a place you have never been to before and by yourself.
Now this might seem a bit of a frightening proposition, but it is the very remedy to disprove what mom taught you about strangers and build your trust in your own judgment and in people you don't know. However, it's important to keep in mind that you don't want to talk to strangers in places where there are few people around. For example, trying to talk to a stranger in a park where very few people are walking around is probably not a very good idea.
Another way to help yourself talk to strangers is to practice saying hello to every person you see while you are walking down the street or while shopping at the supermarket. And be sure to smile, at least a bit, whenever you greet someone you don't know. Most people when they see a smile accompany a greeting will respond in kind.
The biggest thing to remember as you begin to learn how to talk to strangers is that most people are not idiots or bad. Rather, most people are pretty nice and can be trusted and would like for you to talk with them. Being able to trust others is the first step to being able to talk to strangers.
There was a reason for this. It wasn't to be mean to us or to others, but for our safety. Our society teaches us that strangers can hurt young people. As we grow up this belief stays with us, and unfortunately prevents us from meeting a lot of very good and caring people. However, there are things you can do to help when you are talking to strangers.
Let Go
First, let go of those things that mom and society has taught you about strangers. Most people are good and don't hurt other people, so let go of the idea that strangers are bad people.
Be Prepared
Next, be prepared to be ignored by someone you don't know if you try to talk to them. This will be easier to accept when you understand that other people have been taught the same thing you have about talking to strangers. Don't take brush offs personally because it not about you as a person, but what they have been taught, just like you.
Keep Things Basic
When first beginning to talk to strangers keep the conversation very basic and impersonal. Talk about the weather, or about something you notice regarding your surroundings or something else that is superficial and non-threatening to talk about. It's important to keep in mind that how you say something is much more important than what you say.
Speaking of which, if you are talking with a stranger it's not a very good idea to use big words to try to impress them with. In fact, this is risky because you don't even know if the person will understand what you are talking about and misjudge you as that kind of person mom taught them about. So, keep your conversation simple and very non-personal.
Trust People
That's right! Trust people. Our society has seriously damaged our trust for our fellow man by instilling in us that everyone is out to hurt us. But the reality is that there are few people, if any at all, that are out to hurt us. The best way to overcome this is take a chance and talk to strangers (in safe environments).
Build Your Trust
One way to build your trust in other people that you don't know is to go out to a place you have never been to before and by yourself.
Now this might seem a bit of a frightening proposition, but it is the very remedy to disprove what mom taught you about strangers and build your trust in your own judgment and in people you don't know. However, it's important to keep in mind that you don't want to talk to strangers in places where there are few people around. For example, trying to talk to a stranger in a park where very few people are walking around is probably not a very good idea.
Another way to help yourself talk to strangers is to practice saying hello to every person you see while you are walking down the street or while shopping at the supermarket. And be sure to smile, at least a bit, whenever you greet someone you don't know. Most people when they see a smile accompany a greeting will respond in kind.
The biggest thing to remember as you begin to learn how to talk to strangers is that most people are not idiots or bad. Rather, most people are pretty nice and can be trusted and would like for you to talk with them. Being able to trust others is the first step to being able to talk to strangers.
How To Give Them Without Sounding Insincere
Compliments; We all love to receive them but do we know how to give them? Giving compliments is vital in helping you to establish good relations with another person. Of course, we don't want the compliments to sound too forced or facetious. So how can we give compliments and sound sincere at the same time? Here are is a method that you can try out.
Do it behind their back!
For example, you want to get into the good books of your boss, Charlotte, at work. However, you do not want to risk complimenting her face to face and sounding insincere. What you could do is to compliment her behind her back. You could tell her good friend Stephanie about how great working for Charlotte is. There's a high chance that Stephanie would pass this compliment on to Charlotte.
The good thing about this is that it would sound much more credible when Stephanie tells Charlotte "hey Charlotte, Warren said that working for you is a great experience" as opposed to if you were to compliment Charlotte face to face. Remember, a compliment one hears is not as exciting as the compliment one overhears.
You need not just tell Charlotte's good friends. You could spread the compliment to as many of your fellow workers as possible (the idea is to spread it to as many people as possible) but do not keep on harping on this compliment and keep repeating it. You'll sound very insincere this way. When you spread the compliment to more people, the chances of it reaching Charlotte becomes even higher.
Essentially, telling a compliment behind the person's back to other people helps you escape possible suspicion of being a boot-licker trying to use compliments for your own personal gain. You also help make the recipient of the compliment even happy that you are telling the world about how great they are, thus helping you to score some major popularity points.
Do it behind their back!
For example, you want to get into the good books of your boss, Charlotte, at work. However, you do not want to risk complimenting her face to face and sounding insincere. What you could do is to compliment her behind her back. You could tell her good friend Stephanie about how great working for Charlotte is. There's a high chance that Stephanie would pass this compliment on to Charlotte.
The good thing about this is that it would sound much more credible when Stephanie tells Charlotte "hey Charlotte, Warren said that working for you is a great experience" as opposed to if you were to compliment Charlotte face to face. Remember, a compliment one hears is not as exciting as the compliment one overhears.
You need not just tell Charlotte's good friends. You could spread the compliment to as many of your fellow workers as possible (the idea is to spread it to as many people as possible) but do not keep on harping on this compliment and keep repeating it. You'll sound very insincere this way. When you spread the compliment to more people, the chances of it reaching Charlotte becomes even higher.
Essentially, telling a compliment behind the person's back to other people helps you escape possible suspicion of being a boot-licker trying to use compliments for your own personal gain. You also help make the recipient of the compliment even happy that you are telling the world about how great they are, thus helping you to score some major popularity points.
I Hate Facebook "Add As A Friend" Feature - You Don't Add Friends, You Build Friendship
I've once read somewhere that friends are God's way to apologize for our families. Ok, our families do not need to be that bad to make this statement true, but it certainly have some truth on it. For many people, friends are just as important as their families.
Friends are part of me. They help me out when I need, they will tell me the truth when the truth must be heard. We can't depend solely on our own instincts to survive; to win in the long run we all must have good friends to support us.
I believe that I could bear losing all my loves; but I wouldn't last a day if I lost all my friends. This statement might look exaggerated but I believe it is the truth. Friends are not easily replaceable; there is something far bigger behind friendship that one can only strive to understand.
So, in order to establish and develop good relationships, we must all take into account several factors that constitute a good relationship. Respect, trust, loyalty and support are common factors regarding friendship bonding.
You must build rapport and respect with your friends in a way that they will know all your flaws, but still respect you. This is not easily achievable and there are many ways to do it so. The best are usually the most natural ones.
You should always remind your friend about how much you care for him. A good way to do that is through the use of best friends bracelets. This will ensure that you have some kind of bonding that will constantly remind you of your friends.
With today's social interaction tools advent, many people are losing the ability to build a long lasting relationship. John Leonard once said: "It takes a long time to grow an old friend." This is still true today regardless of what Facebook has to say about it.
Friends are part of me. They help me out when I need, they will tell me the truth when the truth must be heard. We can't depend solely on our own instincts to survive; to win in the long run we all must have good friends to support us.
I believe that I could bear losing all my loves; but I wouldn't last a day if I lost all my friends. This statement might look exaggerated but I believe it is the truth. Friends are not easily replaceable; there is something far bigger behind friendship that one can only strive to understand.
So, in order to establish and develop good relationships, we must all take into account several factors that constitute a good relationship. Respect, trust, loyalty and support are common factors regarding friendship bonding.
You must build rapport and respect with your friends in a way that they will know all your flaws, but still respect you. This is not easily achievable and there are many ways to do it so. The best are usually the most natural ones.
You should always remind your friend about how much you care for him. A good way to do that is through the use of best friends bracelets. This will ensure that you have some kind of bonding that will constantly remind you of your friends.
With today's social interaction tools advent, many people are losing the ability to build a long lasting relationship. John Leonard once said: "It takes a long time to grow an old friend." This is still true today regardless of what Facebook has to say about it.
How To Deal With People Who Annoy You
The world is an interesting place to live in as we have many different personalities on this planet that we call home. However, the downside to this is that inevitably, there would be certain personalities that irritate or annoy us. Annoying people could be all around us and more often than not, we would have to work together with these people. For example, there could be a co-worker in the office that you cannot stand but must work together to achieve a common goal. Having the ability to deal with such people can bring you less stress and more happiness.
The first way to deal with people who we cannot stand is to acknowledge why we are annoyed by the person. We could be annoyed by lots of things, like a person's looks, his actions, his way of dressing, or even his perceptions of things. To deal with annoying people, we must first identify what it is exactly about the person that annoys us. We must accept that we cannot control the thoughts or mannerisms of others. What we can control is how we respond to such people. For example, when we are annoyed by a person's constant burping, we could draw our focus to other things about the person like his dressing. If even his dressing annoys you, you could draw your focus to the things in the environment around you, like the tall building in the backdrop for instance. The key is to draw your focus away from the source of annoyance.
Mahatma Ghandi once said "be the change you want to see in the world". This quote is quite applicable in the context of dealing with annoying people. It is more difficult to change the annoying person than to make a change in ourselves. When people are angry or irrational, any word or action that you make can be interpreted as aggression and trigger even more aggression. Even though it may be tough, the best thing to do in this circumstance is to remain calm and allow them to continue with their tirade. After they have let off some steam, you could perhaps ask them if they would like to discuss the matter at a later time when they have calmed down. If this request leads to even more ranting, simply wait it out and ask them again. Going by the Law of Reciprocity, the ranting person (hopefully!) will feel ashamed or even guilty after their tirade, especially if you are not responding to them. This actually puts you back in control of the entire situation.
Another way to deal with annoying people is to be as clear as possible in any form of communication that you have with them in order to prevent misunderstandings that can make these people annoy you even further. For example, if your annoying co-worker asks you to make 5 copies of a document, repeat this request to him for a second confirmation. This is to make sure that you totally understand what he is saying and prevent any conflicts arising due to the miscommunication of information.
The first way to deal with people who we cannot stand is to acknowledge why we are annoyed by the person. We could be annoyed by lots of things, like a person's looks, his actions, his way of dressing, or even his perceptions of things. To deal with annoying people, we must first identify what it is exactly about the person that annoys us. We must accept that we cannot control the thoughts or mannerisms of others. What we can control is how we respond to such people. For example, when we are annoyed by a person's constant burping, we could draw our focus to other things about the person like his dressing. If even his dressing annoys you, you could draw your focus to the things in the environment around you, like the tall building in the backdrop for instance. The key is to draw your focus away from the source of annoyance.
Mahatma Ghandi once said "be the change you want to see in the world". This quote is quite applicable in the context of dealing with annoying people. It is more difficult to change the annoying person than to make a change in ourselves. When people are angry or irrational, any word or action that you make can be interpreted as aggression and trigger even more aggression. Even though it may be tough, the best thing to do in this circumstance is to remain calm and allow them to continue with their tirade. After they have let off some steam, you could perhaps ask them if they would like to discuss the matter at a later time when they have calmed down. If this request leads to even more ranting, simply wait it out and ask them again. Going by the Law of Reciprocity, the ranting person (hopefully!) will feel ashamed or even guilty after their tirade, especially if you are not responding to them. This actually puts you back in control of the entire situation.
Another way to deal with annoying people is to be as clear as possible in any form of communication that you have with them in order to prevent misunderstandings that can make these people annoy you even further. For example, if your annoying co-worker asks you to make 5 copies of a document, repeat this request to him for a second confirmation. This is to make sure that you totally understand what he is saying and prevent any conflicts arising due to the miscommunication of information.
Kamis, 16 Desember 2010
Teaching Noun Clauses, Part 1
Today's topic is noun clauses. I have to warn you in advance that if you decided to tackle this area, my experience has been that noun clauses are complex and difficult to teach! They are even more difficult to explain but I'll try to be as clear as possible and break them down gradually.
A noun clause is a dependent clause that works like a noun. You can find it as a subject, object or the compliment of a subject. Because of the variety of noun clauses, today I'm only going to try to discuss noun clauses as they are used as objects. Furthermore, in this article, I will confine the discussion to one aspect of object noun clauses: the 'that-clause'. I will offer an activity to teach these types of noun clauses.
To refresh your memory, a noun clause as an object might look like this:
Intro/Independent Noun Clause/Dependent
Subject Verb Object
He knows that noun clauses are difficult.
There are three types of common noun clauses, which I'll eventually cover.
- That- clauses, which are like the example above.
- If/whether clauses:
I don't know whether/if my students have studied noun clauses before.
The teacher must determine if they are ready to study noun clauses.
- Wh- clauses that begin with words like who, what, how, whenever, which, etc?/font>
I don't know which noun clauses to teach.
First you need to explain what a noun clause is.
As for punctuation, the intro clause determines whether it's a question or statement.
Now here's where it starts to get tricky to teach. How does a student know what tense to put the verb in the noun clause. Here's what I mean:
At yesterday's meeting, the teachers all agreed that teaching noun clauses is/was a difficult problem.
I don't know about you but I have to think twice about which verb to choose. In most cases, any tense of the verb in the noun clause is grammatically acceptable, but it often changes the meaning in ways that are too subtle to teach to your students.
The teachers agreed that teaching noun clauses is difficult implies that in general noun clauses are difficult to teach.
The teachers agreed that teaching noun clauses was difficult implies that it was a difficult at that particular time when they taught it.
That Clauses
That clauses are made from statements and are introduced by the word that. Now we have to kick it up another level because of the indirect object problem.
- Sometimes we have sentences that begin such as, I agree that . . . , He concluded that . . . I noticed that . . .No problem, right?
- But can we say, I assured that . . . I convinced that . . . I notified that . . . I reminded that . . . ? Of course we cannot. We must use an indirect object. I assured my students that they could handle noun clauses. I convinced them that it wasn’t so difficult.
- Then we have some verbs in the intro clause that you have the choice to use an indirect object or not. But the preposition 'to' is required.
I proved (to the students) that they could grasp this concept. I mentioned( to them) that we other students had done well with noun clauses.
- Finally, there is the case when the indirect object is optional.
I promised (them) that the test would be easy. I promised (them) it would be short.
So let's get organized and set up a chart of the four groups and their different situations.
- Intro clause: no indirect object needed.
Common verbs include: agree, answer, notice assert, conclude, know, realize, state, think . .
Everyone knows that English is an international language
2. Intro clause: indirect object optional but if used, needs the word 'to'
Common verbs include: admit, explain. mention, point out, prove, reply
I explained ( to my boss) that my computer crashed .
3.Intro clause: must use indirect object
Common verbs include: assure, convince, inform, notify, remind, tell . . .
I reminded him that he had an appointment today
4. Intro clause: indirect object optional
Common verbs include: promise, show, teach, warn, write
He showed (the class) how to make soup
Now there is yet another complication: After certain verbs and adjectives in the intro clause, the verb in the 'that-clause' is expressed in the simple form. Here’s an example:
The ESL conversation instructor urged that the students be more talkative. He insisted that they not waste time looking in their dictionaries. It is necessary that each student speak more to other students.
Here are some of the verbs that cover this case:
Advise, ask command, demand, direct, insist, move, propose, recommend, suggest, urge
Here are some adjectives that cover this case:
Advisable, essential, necessary, important, urgent, vital
I know that's more than you ever care to know about this topic so in case you are still with me, here's an activity to get your students some practice with 'that' clauses.
Warm up Exercise One: Choose a verb plus 'that' from the above groups that make sense in these sentences:
- Experts __________________ exercise is important for health.
- However, a recent magazine article _________________ Americans do not exercise enough.
- Dr. Jones , in a letter to Congress, ________________ a campaign to increase the health of Americans is necessary.
- He also _________________ nutrition education in schools must begin in elementary school.
- He _____________ every American change his/her lifestyle.
Activity Two: Practicing the verb in the base form in the 'that' clause.
This can be used as a conversation or writing activity
Fictional Background Information: There is a sudden and serious reduction in the oil supply to our country and has caused a shortage. As a result, the government is proposing restrictions on gasoline use for cars. Follow the example to make noun clauses:
________________________________________________________________________
Example:
What did the government order?
People must decrease their use of gasoline; they should not waste gas.
Answer: The government ordered that people decrease their gasoline use and that they not waste it.
Show students how to cut out the modal, must, should, etc? __________________________________________________________________
- What did the government demand?
Each family must reduce their gas usage by 30%
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. What is necessary?
Everyone must obey the new restrictions
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3.What did the government require for people who live in the city?
People can only drive 3 times a week .
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. What is advisable?
People should conserve gas as much as possible.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What has been demanded of airlines?
Airlines should cut their trips by 25 %
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. What was suggested?
All workers use public transportation if possible
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. What was urged?
People must take this crisis seriously
If you are using this as a speaking practice activity you can put the questions on one card and the response on another card and pass them out at random in small groups. Or put all the questions in a pile and have students take turns picking up a question card and the next student must answer the question with a suitable noun clause. The above example is short so you'll have to create some more situations to practice with but it should give you an idea about how to get started teaching noun clauses that begin with 'that'.
References:
Oshima, A. and Hogue, A.(1999) Writing Academic English Longman
ENGLISH GRAMMAR CORNER (PART I)
The Sentence
Sentences are used in all languages. Sentences are used in both speech and writing. You are learning about writing in English. When we talk about the sentence in this class, we are talking about the written English sentence. We are not talking about sentences in other languages. We are not talking about spoken sentences.
A. What is a sentence?
A written English sentence is a group of words with four characteristics:
1. All sentences begin with a capital letter: A, B, C,….
(The other kind of letters are called lower case: a, b, c,…. )
2. All sentences end with a period or an exclamation point or a question mark: . ! ?
3. A sentence contains at least one clause.
That is, a sentence contains at least one subject and at least one predicate.
4. All sentences follow a standard word order. These are correct sentences:
B. What is a clause?
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.
1. A clause tells us that someone or something (subject) is or was or does or did something (predicate).
A subject is usually a noun or pronoun.
A predicate always contains a verb. A predicate may also contain other things (adverb, object, complement,…), but a predicate always contains a verb.
2. A clause may be a sentence: Mary sings.
3. A clause may be a part of a sentence: Mary sings and Bill plays the guitar.
4. Some examples of clauses:
SUBJECT PREDICATE
Someone/Something is/was/does/did something.
George is a boy.
He loves to eat.
What he loves to eat is pizza.
George and his friends might have pizza for lunch.
Pizza is not served at George's house.
C. What is a predicate verb?
A predicate verb has the following three characteristics:
1. A predicate verb has a subject. A subject is usually a noun or a pronoun, but a clause can be a subject.
2. A predicate verb has voice (active or passive; see Passive Sentences).
3. A predicate verb has tense (past or present; see Tenses) or a modal (see Modal Auxiliaries).
These are the predicate verbs in the clauses above:
D. What is a dependent clause?
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and predicate. A dependent clause usually begins with a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns (see Adjective Clauses), subordinating conjunctions (see Adverb Clauses), and noun clause markers (see Noun Clauses). Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.
1. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence by itself. A dependent clause that is not part of a sentence is a fragment. That is, a dependent clause which begins with a capital letter and ends with a period is a fragment. Don’t write fragments.
2. A dependent clause can only be part of a sentence. Every sentence must have at least one independent clause.
3. There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. Some dependent clauses look like this:
SUBORDINATOR + SUBJECT + PREDICATE that his bike is beautiful which he got for Christmas because his bike had a flat tire Other dependent clauses look like this :
SUBORDINATOR + PREDICATE who loves his bike whatever is on his plate which is painted red and blue The subordinator is also the subject in these clauses.
4. Subordinators can sometimes be omitted, so dependent clauses sometimes look like independent clauses (Subject + Predicate).
Object relative pronouns (see Adjective Clauses) can usually be omitted.
B. The twelve traditional tenses: All examples below are active; see Passive Sentences for examples of passive verbs.
Forms of the predicate verb below do not always apply to the verb be; however, they do apply to all other English verbs. See Auxiliary Verbs for more information about the verb be.
See Conditional Sentences for some unusual uses of tenses.
See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z for explanations and examples of the five forms of English verbs: BASE, +S, PAST, ING, PARTICIPLE.
Many teachers and textbooks use progressive instead of continuous; they are the same (continuous = progressive).
Simple Present
Forms of the predicate verb:
1. BASE (if the subject is I, we, you, they, or any plural)
2. +S (if the subject is he, she, it, or any singular other than I or you)
Meanings & examples:
1. Habitual activity
Simple Past
Form of the predicate verb: PAST
Meanings & examples:
1. Completed past action
Simple Future
Forms of the predicate verb:
1. WILL + BASE
2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + BASE
Meaning & examples:
Future time
Present Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Form of the predicate verb: AM/IS/ARE + ING
Meanings & examples:
1. Present time
Past Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Form of the predicate verb: WAS/WERE + ING
Meanings & examples:
1. Emphasizes duration and/or repetition of past action
Future Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Forms of the predicate verb:
1. WILL + BE + ING
2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + BE + ING
Meanings & examples:
1. Emphasizes duration and/or repetition of future action
Present Perfect
Form of the predicate verb: HAVE/HAS + PARTICIPLE
Meanings & examples:
The present perfect indicates that a past action or state has relevance in the present. The following are some possible explanations for present relevance of a past action or state:
1. Something happened at an unspecified past time
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Past Perfect
Form of the predicate verb: HAD + PARTICIPLE
Meanings & examples:
1. Indicates past action was completed before another past action or past time
Future Perfect
Forms of the predicate verb:
1. WILL + HAVE + PARTICIPLE
2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + HAVE + PARTICIPLE
Meaning & examples:
Indicates future action that will be completed before another future action or future time
Present Perfect Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Form of the predicate verb: HAVE/HAS + BEEN + ING
Meanings & examples:
Indicates a situation that began in the past and continues in the present
Past Perfect Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Form of the predicate verb: HAD + BEEN + ING
Meaning & examples:
Indicates a past action that continued for some time before some other past action or time
Future Perfect Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Forms of the predicate verb:
1. WILL + HAVE + BEEN + ING
2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + HAVE + BEEN + ING
Meaning & examples:
Indicates future action that continues until some other future action or time
C. Stative verbs are not used in continuous tenses
A stative verb (love for example) refers to a state of knowledge, perception, or condition; a nonstative verb (eat) refers to an action.
Simple present tense forms of stative verbs are used to mean present time.
correct
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verbs indicating possession: belong, have (=possess), own, possess
verbs indicating mental states: believe, doubt, imagine, know, mean, recognize, remember, suppose, think (=believe), understand, wonder
verbs related to the senses: appear, feel, hear, look (=appear), see, smell, taste
verbs referring to emotions: appreciate, desire, dislike, hate, like, love
other stative verbs: contain, cost, equal, measure, need, owe, prefer, seem, want, weigh
A. Be is used as the auxiliary in continuous tenses and passive voice (in all sentences: affirmative and negative, statements and questions).
Forms without tense:
B. Do is used as the auxiliary in simple past and simple present tenses (in questions and negatives only).
Forms without tense:
C. Have is used as the auxiliary in perfect tenses (in all sentences: affirmative and negative, statements and questions).
Forms without tense:
D. Be, do, and have are not always auxiliary verbs. They can also be main verbs. Main verbs are underlined in the examples below.
Modals are always followed by the base form of a verb or auxiliary verb.
Modals are always the same form no matter what the subject is.
In standard American English, a predicate verb phrase cannot contain more than one modal.
correct
Below are example sentences containing the modal may and the verb go. Notice that the form of the modal does not change. Also notice that the base form of a verb or auxiliary verb always follows the modal.
Modals and related verb phrases add meanings to verbs. Below are some of those meanings:
Ability/Availability
future: will be able to
present: can, am/is/are able to
past: could, was/were able to
Requests
present/future: can, could, will, would
Permission
future: will be allowed to
present/future: may, can, could, am/is/are allowed to
past: could, was/were allowed to
Possibility
present/future: may, might, could
past: may have, might have, could have
Impossibility
present/future: couldn’t, can’t
past: couldn’t have
Advisability
present/future: should, ought to, had better
past: should have, ought to have, had better have
Expectation
present/future: should, ought to
past: should have, ought to have
Necessity
future: will have to
present/future: must, have to, has to
past: had to
Lack of Necessity
future: won’t have to
present/future: don’t have to, doesn’t have to
past: didn’t have to
Prohibition
present/future: must not, may not, cannot
past: could not
Logical Deduction (=Probability)
present: must, have to, has to
past: must have, have to have, has to have
SOCIAL MODALS
The choice of modal depends partly on the social situation.
We often use formal language with strangers (people we don’t know) and superiors (people with some power over us such as our employers, doctors, and teachers).
We often use informal language with our equals (our friends and family) and subordinates (people we have some power over such as our employees or children).
General requests (present and/or future):
The choice of modal depends partly on the urgency of the message or the authority of the speaker/writer or both.
MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about present time)
The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.
Someone is knocking at the door.
That could be Fred.
That might be Fred.
That ought to be Fred.
That has to be Fred.
That has got to be Fred.
That couldn’t be Mary.
MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about past time)
The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.
Someone was knocking at the door.
That could have been Fred.
That might have been Fred.
That has to have been Fred.
That has got to have been Fred.
MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about future time) The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.
What will the weather be like tomorrow?
It could rain tomorrow.
It might rain tomorrow.
It ought to rain tomorrow.
2. All other English verbs have five forms (see the list of common English verbs below).
B. Functions of the five verb forms (all verbs except be):
1. The base form has functions both with and without tense.
3. The past form has only one function. It is the past tense form in statements no matter what the subject is.
4. The ing form has no tense. It has three functions:
C. Below is a list of the five forms of some common English verbs. Also see Verbs M-Z.
base: accept +s: accepts past: accepted ing: accepting participle: accepted
base: accuse +s: accuses past: accused ing: accusing participle: accused
base: act +s: acts past: acted ing: acting participle: acted
base: add +s: adds past: added ing: adding participle: added
base: admit +s: admits past: admitted ing: admitting participle: admitted
base: advertise +s: advertises past: advertised ing: advertising participle: advertised
base: advise +s: advises past: advised ing: advising participle: advised
base: affect +s: affects past: affected ing: affecting participle: affected
base: afford +s: affords past: afforded ing: affording participle: afforded
base: agree +s: agrees past: agreed ing: agreeing participle: agreed
base: allow +s: allows past: allowed ing: allowing participle: allowed
base: analyze +s: analyzes past: analyzed ing: analyzing participle: analyzed
base: announce +s: announces past: announced ing: announcing participle: announced
base: answer +s: answers past: answered ing: answering participle: answered
base: appear +s: appears past: appeared ing: appearing participle: appeared
base: apply +s: applies past: applied ing: applying participle: applied
base: appoint +s: appoints past: appointed ing: appointing participle: appointed
base: appreciate +s: appreciates past: appreciated ing: appreciating participle: appreciated
base: argue +s: argues past: argued ing: arguing participle: argued
base: arise +s: arises past: arose ing: arising participle: arisen
base: arouse +s: arouses past: aroused ing: arousing participle: aroused
base: arrange +s: arranges past: arranged ing: arranging participle: arranged
base: arrest +s: arrests past: arrested ing: arresting participle: arrested
base: arrive +s: arrives past: arrived ing: arriving participle: arrived
base: ask +s: asks past: asked ing: asking participle: asked
base: assign +s: assigns past: assigned ing: assigning participle: assigned
base: assist +s: assists past: assisted ing: assisting participle: assisted
base: attempt +s: attempts past: attempted ing: attempting participle: attempted
base: avoid +s: avoids past: avoided ing: avoiding participle: avoided
base: bake +s: bakes past: baked ing: baking participle: baked
base: bark +s: barks past: barked ing: barking participle: barked
base: bear +s: bears past: bore ing: bearing participle: born
base: beat +s: beats past: beat ing: beating participle: beaten
base: become +s: becomes past: became ing: becoming participle: become
base: beg +s: begs past: begged ing: begging participle: begged
base: begin +s: begins past: began ing: beginning participle: begun
base: bend +s: bends past: bent ing: bending participle: bent
base: bet +s: bets past: bet ing: betting participle: bet
base: bid +s: bids past: bid ing: bidding participle: bid
base: bind +s: binds past: bound ing: binding participle: bound
base: bite +s: bites past: bit ing: biting participle: bitten
base: bleed +s: bleeds past: bled ing: bleeding participle: bled
base: blow +s: blows past: blew ing: blowing participle: blown
base: boil +s: boils past: boiled ing: boiling participle: boiled
base: bore +s: bores past: bored ing: boring participle: bored
base: borrow +s: borrows past: borrowed ing: borrowing participle: borrowed
base: bother +s: bothers past: bothered ing: bothering participle: bothered
base: bow +s: bows past: bowed ing: bowing participle: bowed
base: break +s: breaks past: broke ing: breaking participle: broken
base: breathe +s: breathes past: breathed ing: breathing participle: breathed
base: breed +s: breeds past: bred ing: breeding participle: bred
base: bring +s: brings past: brought ing: bringing participle: brought
base: broadcast +s: broadcasts past: broadcast ing: broadcasting participle: broadcast
base: brush +s: brushes past: brushed ing: brushing participle: brushed
base: build +s: builds past: built ing: building participle: built
base: burn +s: burns past: burned ing: burning participle: burned
base: burst +s: bursts past: burst ing: bursting participle: burst
base: buy +s: buys past: bought ing: buying participle: bought
base: calculate +s: calculates past: calculated ing: calculating participle: calculated
base: call +s: calls past: called ing: calling participle: called
base: care +s: cares past: cared ing: caring participle: cared
base: carry +s: carries past: carried ing: carrying participle: carried
base: cash +s: cashes past: cashed ing: cashing participle: cashed
base: cast +s: casts past: cast ing: casting participle: cast
base: catch +s: catches past: caught ing: catching participle: caught
base: cater +s: caters past: catered ing: catering participle: catered
base: cause +s: causes past: caused ing: causing participle: caused
base: change +s: changes past: changed ing: changing participle: changed
base: charge +s: charges past: charged ing: charging participle: charged
base: chase +s: chases past: chased ing: chasing participle: chased
base: chat +s: chats past: chatted ing: chatting participle: chatted
base: cheat +s: cheats past: cheated ing: cheating participle: cheated
base: chew +s: chews past: chewed ing: chewing participle: chewed
base: choose +s: chooses past: chose ing: choosing participle: chosen
base: clean +s: cleans past: cleaned ing: cleaning participle: cleaned
base: climb +s: climbs past: climbed ing: climbing participle: climbed
base: cling +s: clings past: clung ing: clinging participle: clung
base: close +s: closes past: closed ing: closing participle: closed
base: comb +s: combs past: combed ing: combing participle: combed
base: come +s: comes past: came ing: coming participle: come
base: command +s: commands past: commanded ing: commanding participle: commanded
base: compel +s: compels past: compelled ing: compelling participle: compelled
base: confuse +s: confuses past: confused ing: confusing participle: confused
base: consent +s: consents past: consented ing: consenting participle: consented
base: consider +s: considers past: considered ing: considering participle: considered
base: continue +s: continues past: continued ing: continuing participle: continued
base: control +s: controls past: controlled ing: controlling participle: controlled
base: cook +s: cooks past: cooked ing: cooking participle: cooked
base: cost +s: costs past: cost ing: costing participle: cost
base: cough +s: coughs past: coughed ing: coughing participle: coughed
base: count +s: counts past: counted ing: counting participle: counted
base: cower +s: cowers past: cowered ing: cowering participle: cowered
base: crash +s: crashes past: crashed ing: crashing participle: crashed
base: creep +s: creeps past: crept ing: creeping participle: crept
base: cruise +s: cruises past: cruised ing: cruising participle: cruised
base: cry +s: cries past: cried ing: crying participle: cried
base: cut +s: cuts past: cut ing: cutting participle: cut
base: dance +s: dances past: danced ing: dancing participle: danced
base: dare +s: dares past: dared ing: daring participle: dared
base: date +s: dates past: dated ing: dating participle: dated
base: deal +s: deals past: dealt ing: dealing participle: dealt
base: decide +s: decides past: decided ing: deciding participle: decided
base: declare +s: declares past: declared ing: declaring participle: declared
base: defend +s: defends past: defended ing: defending participle: defended
base: defer +s: defers past: deferred ing: deferring participle: deferred
base: deny +s: denies past: denied ing: denying participle: denied
base: depend +s: depends past: depended ing: depending participle: depended
base: deposit +s: deposits past: deposited ing: depositing participle: deposited
base: describe +s: describes past: described ing: describing participle: described
base: deserve +s: deserves past: deserved ing: deserving participle: deserved
base: despise +s: despises past: despised ing: despising participle: despised
base: deter +s: deters past: deterred ing: deterring participle: deterred
base: determine +s: determines past: determined ing: determining participle: determined
base: die +s: dies past: died ing: dying participle: died
base: dig +s: digs past: dug ing: digging participle: dug
base: discover +s: discovers past: discovered ing: discovering participle: discovered
base: dislike +s: dislikes past: disliked ing: disliking participle: disliked
base: dive +s: dives past: dove ing: diving participle: dived
base: divide +s: divides past: divided ing: dividing participle: divided
base: do +s: does past: did ing: doing participle: done
base: draw +s: draws past: drew ing: drawing participle: drawn
base: dream +s: dreams past: dreamed ing: dreaming participle: dreamed
base: dress +s: dresses past: dressed ing: dressing participle: dressed
base: drink +s: drinks past: drank ing: drinking participle: drunk
base: drive +s: drives past: drove ing: driving participle: driven
base: dye +s: dyes past: dyed ing: dyeing participle: dyed
base: eat +s: eats past: ate ing: eating participle: eaten
base: enjoy +s: enjoys past: enjoyed ing: enjoying participle: enjoyed
base: enter +s: enters past: entered ing: entering participle: entered
base: entertain +s: entertains past: entertained ing: entertaining participle: entertained
base: erase +s: erases past: erased ing: erasing participle: erased
base: escape +s: escapes past: escaped ing: escaping participle: escaped
base: examine +s: examines past: examined ing: examining participle: examined
base: excite +s: excites past: excited ing: exciting participle: excited
base: exist +s: exists past: existed ing: existing participle: existed
base: exit +s: exits past: exited ing: exiting participle: exited
base: expect +s: expects past: expected ing: expecting participle: expected
base: explain +s: explains past: explained ing: explaining participle: explained
base: fail +s: fails past: failed ing: failing participle: failed
base: fall +s: falls past: fell ing: falling participle: fallen
base: fear +s: fears past: feared ing: fearing participle: feared
base: feed +s: feeds past: fed ing: feeding participle: fed
base: feel +s: feels past: felt ing: feeling participle: felt
base: fight +s: fights past: fought ing: fighting participle: fought
base: fill +s: fills past: filled ing: filling participle: filled
base: find +s: finds past: found ing: finding participle: found
base: finish +s: finishes past: finished ing: finishing participle: finished
base: fit +s: fits past: fit ing: fitting participle: fit
base: fix +s: fixes past: fixed ing: fixing participle: fixed
base: flee +s: flees past: fled ing: fleeing participle: fled
base: fling +s: flings past: flung ing: flinging participle: flung
base: fly +s: flies past: flew ing: flying participle: flown
base: follow +s: follows past: followed ing: following participle: followed
base: fool +s: fools past: fooled ing: fooling participle: fooled
base: forbid +s: forbids past: forbade ing: forbidding participle: forbidden
base: force +s: forces past: forced ing: forcing participle: forced
base: forget +s: forgets past: forgot ing: forgetting participle: forgotten
base: forgive +s: forgives past: forgave ing: forgiving participle: forgiven
base: found +s: founds past: founded ing: founding participle: founded
base: freeze +s: freezes past: froze ing: freezing participle: frozen
base: frighten +s: frightens past: frightened ing: frightening participle: frightened
base: fry +s: fries past: fried ing: frying participle: fried
base: get +s: gets past: got ing: getting participle: gotten
base: give +s: gives past: gave ing: giving participle: given
base: glimmer +s: glimmers past: glimmered ing: glimmering participle: glimmered
base: glitter +s: glitters past: glittered ing: glittering participle: glittered
base: gnaw +s: gnaws past: gnawed ing: gnawing participle: gnawed
base: go +s: goes past: went ing: going participle: gone
base: grind +s: grinds past: ground ing: rinding participle: ground
base: grow +s: grows past: grew ing: growing participle: grown
base: guess +s: guesses past: guessed ing: guessing participle: guessed
base: hang +s: hangs past: hanged ing: hanging participle: hanged
base: hang +s: hangs past: hung ing: hanging participle: hung
base: happen +s: happens past: happened ing: happening participle: happened
base: hate +s: hates past: hated ing: hating participle: hated
base: have +s: has past: had ing: having participle: had
base: hear +s: hears past: heard ing: hearing participle: heard
base: heat +s: heats past: heated ing: heating participle: heated
base: help +s: helps past: helped ing: helping participle: helped
base: hesitate +s: hesitates past: hesitated ing: hesitating participle: hesitated
base: hide +s: hides past: hid ing: hiding participle: hidden
base: hike +s: hikes past: hiked ing: hiking participle: hiked
base: hire +s: hires past: hired ing: hiring participle: hired
base: hit +s: hits past: hit ing: hitting participle: hit
base: hold +s: holds past: held ing: holding participle: held
base: hope +s: hopes past: hoped ing: hoping participle: hoped
base: hover +s: hovers past: hovered ing: hovering participle: hovered
base: hunt +s: hunts past: hunted ing: hunting participle: hunted
base: hurt +s: hurts past: hurt ing: hurting participle: hurt
base: imagine +s: imagines past: imagined ing: imagining participle: imagined
base: imitate +s: imitates past: imitated ing: imitating participle: imitated
base: imply +s: implies past: implied ing: implying participle: implied
base: improve +s: improves past: improved ing: improving participle: improved
base: infer +s: infers past: inferred ing: inferring participle: inferred
base: inform +s: informs past: informed ing: informing participle: informed
base: injure +s: injures past: injured ing: injuring participle: injured
base: insist +s: insists past: insisted ing: insisting participle: insisted
base: instruct +s: instructs past: instructed ing: instructing participle: instructed
base: intend +s: intends past: intended ing: intending participle: intended
base: introduce +s: introduces past: introduced ing: introducing participle: introduced
base: invent +s: invents past: invented ing: inventing participle: invented
base: invite +s: invites past: invited ing: inviting participle: invited
base: jam +s: jams past: jammed ing: jamming participle: jammed
base: jerk +s: jerks past: jerked ing: jerking participle: jerked
base: jingle +s: jingles past: jingled ing: jingling participle: jingled
base: jog +s: jogs past: jogged ing: jogging participle: jogged
base: join +s: joins past: joined ing: joining participle: joined
base: joke +s: jokes past: joked ing: joking participle: joked
base: jolt +s: jolts past: jolted ing: jolting participle: jolted
base: judge +s: judges past: judged ing: judging participle: judged
base: juggle +s: juggles past: juggled ing: juggling participle: juggled
base: jump +s: jumps past: jumped ing: jumping participle: jumped
base: keep +s: keeps past: kept ing: keeping participle: kept
base: kill +s: kills past: killed ing: killing participle: killed
base: kneel +s: kneels past: knelt ing: kneeling participle: knelt
base: knock +s: knocks past: knocked ing: knocking participle: knocked
base: know +s: knows past: knew ing: knowing participle: known
base: land +s: lands past: landed ing: landing participle: landed
base: laugh +s: laughs past: laughed ing: laughing participle: laughed
base: lay +s: lays past: laid ing: laying participle: laid
base: lead +s: leads past: led ing: leading participle: led
base: leap +s: leaps past: leaped ing: leaping participle: leaped
base: learn +s: learns past: learned ing: learning participle: learned
base: lease +s: leases past: leased ing: leasing participle: leased
base: leave +s: leaves past: left ing: leaving participle: left
base: lend +s: lends past: lent ing: lending participle: lent
base: let +s: lets past: let ing: letting participle: let
base: lie +s: lies past: lay ing: lying participle: lain
base: lie +s: lies past: lied ing: lying participle: lied
base: lift +s: lifts past: lifted ing: lifting participle: lifted
base: light +s: lights past: lit ing: lighting participle: lit
base: like +s: likes past: liked ing: liking participle: liked
base: liquefy +s: liquefies past: liquefied ing: liquefying participle: liquefied
base: listen +s: listens past: listened ing: listening participle: listened
base: live +s: lives past: lived ing: living participle: lived
base: loan +s: loans past: loaned ing: loaning participle: loaned
base: look +s: looks past: looked ing: looking participle: looked
base: lose +s: loses past: lost ing: losing participle: lost
base: love +s: loves past: loved ing: loving participle: loved
2. All other English verbs have five forms (see the list of common English verbs below).
B. Functions of the five verb forms (all verbs except be):
1. The base form has functions both with and without tense.
3. The past form has only one function. It is the past tense form in statements no matter what the subject is.
4. The ing form has no tense. It has three functions:
C. Below is a list of the five forms of some common English verbs. Also see Verbs A-L.
base: make +s: makes past: made ing: making participle: made
base: manage +s: manages past: managed ing: managing participle: managed
base: mean +s: means past: meant ing: meaning participle: meant
base: meet +s: meets past: met ing: meeting participle: met
base: memorize +s: memorizes past: memorized ing: memorizing participle: memorized
base: mention +s: mentions past: mentioned ing: mentioning participle: mentioned
base: miss +s: misses past: missed ing: missing participle: missed
base: misspell +s: misspells past: misspelled ing: misspelling participle: misspelled
base: mistake +s: mistakes past: mistook ing: mistaking participle: mistaken
base: mix +s: mixes past: mixed ing: mixing participle: mixed
base: moan +s: moans past: moaned ing: moaning participle: moaned
base: move +s: moves past: moved ing: moving participle: moved
base: murder +s: murders past: murdered ing: murdering participle: murdered
base: mutter +s: mutters past: muttered ing: muttering participle: muttered
base: narrate +s: narrates past: narrated ing: narrating participle: narrated
base: need +s: needs past: needed ing: needing participle: needed
base: neglect +s: neglects past: neglected ing: neglecting participle: neglected
base: notice +s: notices past: noticed ing: noticing participle: noticed
base: nullify +s: nullifies past: nullified ing: nullifying participle: nullified
base: observe +s: observes past: observed ing: observing participle: observed
base: occur +s: occurs past: occurred ing: occurring participle: occurred
base: offend +s: offends past: offended ing: offending participle: offended
base: offer +s: offers past: offered ing: offering participle: offered
base: open +s: opens past: opened ing: opening participle: opened
base: order +s: orders past: ordered ing: ordering participle: ordered
base: overcome +s: overcomes past: overcame ing: overcoming participle: overcome
base: overdo +s: overdoes past: overdid ing: overdoing participle: overdone
base: overtake +s: overtakes past: overtook ing: overtaking participle: overtaken
base: overthrow +s: overthrows past: overthrew ing: overthrowing participle: overthrown
base: own +s: owns past: owned ing: owning participle: owned
base: pack +s: packs past: packed ing: packing participle: packed
base: paint +s: paints past: painted ing: painting participle: painted
base: pamper +s: pampers past: pampered ing: pampering participle: pampered
base: pant +s: pants past: panted ing: panting participle: panted
base: pass +s: passes past: passed ing: passing participle: passed
base: pay +s: pays past: paid ing: paying participle: paid
base: peek +s: peeks past: peeked ing: peeking participle: peeked
base: permit +s: permits past: permitted ing: permitting participle: permitted
base: persuade +s: persuades past: persuaded ing: persuading participle: persuaded
base: pick +s: picks past: picked ing: picking participle: picked
base: plan +s: plans past: planned ing: planning participle: planned
base: play +s: plays past: played ing: playing participle: played
base: plead +s: pleads past: pleaded ing: pleading participle: pleaded
base: pledge +s: pledges past: pledged ing: pledging participle: pledged
base: point +s: points past: pointed ing: pointing participle: pointed
base: polish +s: polishes past: polished ing: polishing participle: polished
base: postpone +s: postpones past: postponed ing: postponing participle: postponed
base: practice +s: practices past: practiced ing: practicing participle: practiced
base: pray +s: prays past: prayed ing: praying participle: prayed
base: prefer +s: prefers past: preferred ing: preferring participle: preferred
base: prepare +s: prepares past: prepared ing: preparing participle: prepared
base: prescribe +s: prescribes past: prescribed ing: prescribing participle: prescribed
base: present +s: presents past: presented ing: presenting participle: presented
base: pretend +s: pretends past: pretended ing: pretending participle: pretended
base: prevent +s: prevents past: prevented ing: preventing participle: prevented
base: produce +s: produces past: produced ing: producing participle: produced
base: promise +s: promises past: promised ing: promising participle: promised
base: pronounce +s: pronounces past: pronounced ing: pronouncing participle: pronounced
base: prove +s: proves past: proved ing: proving participle: proved
base: pull +s: pulls past: pulled ing: pulling participle: pulled
base: push +s: pushes past: pushed ing: pushing participle: pushed
base: put +s: puts past: put ing: putting participle: put
base: putter +s: putters past: puttered ing: puttering participle: puttered
base: quake +s: quakes past: quaked ing: quaking participle: quaked
base: qualify +s: qualifies past: qualified ing: qualifying participle: qualified
base: quarrel +s: quarrels past: quarreled ing: quarreling participle: quarreled
base: quibble +s: quibbles past: quibbled ing: quibbling participle: quibbled
base: quiet +s: quiets past: quieted ing: quieting participle: quieted
base: quit +s: quits past: quit ing: quitting participle: quit
base: quiver +s: quivers past: quivered ing: quivering participle: quivered
base: quote +s: quotes past: quoted ing: quoting participle: quoted
base: race +s: races past: raced ing: racing participle: raced
base: rain +s: rains past: rained ing: raining participle: rained
base: raise +s: raises past: raised ing: raising participle: raised
base: read +s: reads past: read ing: reading participle: read
base: realize +s: realizes past: realized ing: realizing participle: realized
base: recite +s: recites past: recited ing: reciting participle: recited
base: refer +s: refers past: referred ing: referring participle: referred
base: refuse +s: refuses past: refused ing: refusing participle: refused
base: rely +s: relies past: relied ing: relying participle: relied
base: remember +s: remembers past: remembered ing: remembering participle: remembered
base: remind +s: reminds past: reminded ing: reminding participle: reminded
base: rent +s: rents past: rented ing: renting participle: rented
base: repair +s: repairs past: repaired ing: repairing participle: repaired
base: repeat +s: repeats past: repeated ing: repeating participle: repeated
base: reply +s: replies past: replied ing: replying participle: replied
base: request +s: requests past: requested ing: requesting participle: requested
base: require +s: requires past: required ing: requiring participle: required
base: resent +s: resents past: resented ing: resenting participle: resented
base: resist +s: resists past: resisted ing: resisting participle: resisted
base: resolve +s: resolves past: resolved ing: resolving participle: resolved
base: return +s: returns past: returned ing: returning participle: returned
base: review +s: reviews past: reviewed ing: reviewing participle: reviewed
base: revolve +s: revolves past: revolved ing: revolving participle: revolved
base: ride +s: rides past: rode ing: riding participle: ridden
base: ring +s: rings past: rang ing: ringing participle: rung
base: rip +s: rips past: ripped ing: ripping participle: ripped
base: rise +s: rises past: rose ing: rising participle: risen
base: roast +s: roasts past: roasted ing: roasting participle: roasted
base: rob +s: robs past: robbed ing: robbing participle: robbed
base: rub +s: rubs past: rubbed ing: rubbing participle: rubbed
base: run +s: runs past: ran ing: running participle: run
base: save +s: saves past: saved ing: saving participle: saved
base: say +s: says past: said ing: saying participle: said
base: scream +s: screams past: screamed ing: screaming participle: screamed
base: see +s: sees past: saw ing: seeing participle: seen
base: seek +s: seeks past: sought ing: seeking participle: sought
base: seem +s: seems past: seemed ing: seeming participle: seemed
base: sell +s: sells past: sold ing: selling participle: sold
base: send +s: sends past: sent ing: sending participle: sent
base: separate +s: separates past: separated ing: separating participle: separated
base: set +s: sets past: set ing: setting participle: set
base: sew +s: sews past: sewed ing: sewing participle: sewn
base: shake +s: shakes past: shook ing: shaking participle: shaken
base: shed +s: sheds past: shed ing: shedding participle: shed
base: shine +s: shines past: shined ing: shining participle: shined
base: shine +s: shines past: shone ing: shining participle: shone
base: shiver +s: shivers past: shivered ing: shivering participle: shivered
base: shoot +s: shoots past: shot ing: shooting participle: shot
base: shout +s: shouts past: shouted ing: shouting participle: shouted
base: show +s: shows past: showed ing: showing participle: shown
base: shrink +s: shrinks past: shrank ing: shrinking participle: shrunk
base: shut +s: shuts past: shut ing: shutting participle: shut
base: sigh +s: sighs past: sighed ing: sighing participle: sighed
base: sing +s: sings past: sang ing: singing participle: sung
base: sink +s: sinks past: sank ing: sinking participle: sunk
base: sip +s: sips past: sipped ing: sipping participle: sipped
base: sit +s: sits past: sat ing: sitting participle: sat
base: slay +s: slays past: slew ing: slaying participle: slain
base: sleep +s: sleeps past: slept ing: sleeping participle: slept
base: slide +s: slides past: slid ing: sliding participle: slid
base: slit +s: slits past: slit ing: slitting participle: slit
base: smell +s: smells past: smelled ing: smelling participle: smelled
base: smile +s: smiles past: smiled ing: smiling participle: smiled
base: smoke +s: smokes past: smoked ing: smoking participle: smoked
base: sneak +s: sneaks past: sneaked ing: sneaking participle: sneaked
base: sneeze +s: sneezes past: sneezed ing: sneezing participle: sneezed
base: sniff +s: sniffs past: sniffed ing: sniffing participle: sniffed
base: speak +s: speaks past: spoke ing: speaking participle: spoken
base: speed +s: speeds past: sped ing: speeding participle: sped
base: spell +s: spells past: spelled ing: spelling participle: spelled
base: spend +s: spends past: spent ing: spending participle: spent
base: spill +s: spills past: spilled ing: spilling participle: spilled
base: spin +s: spins past: spun ing: spinning participle: spun
base: spit +s: spits past: spit ing: spitting participle: spit
base: split +s: splits past: split ing: splitting participle: split
base: spoil +s: spoils past: spoiled ing: spoiling participle: spoiled
base: spread +s: spreads past: spread ing: spreading participle: spread
base: spring +s: springs past: sprang ing: springing participle: sprung
base: stand +s: stands past: stood ing: standing participle: stood
base: start +s: starts past: started ing: starting participle: started
base: steal +s: steals past: stole ing: stealing participle: stolen
base: step +s: steps past: stepped ing: stepping participle: stepped
base: stick +s: sticks past: stuck ing: sticking participle: stuck
base: sting +s: stings past: stung ing: stinging participle: stung
base: stink +s: stinks past: stank ing: stinking participle: stunk
base: stir +s: stirs past: stirred ing: stirring participle: stirred
base: stop +s: stops past: stopped ing: stopping participle: stopped
base: strike +s: strikes past: struck ing: striking participle: struck
base: string +s: strings past: strung ing: stringing participle: strung
base: strip +s: strips past: stripped ing: stripping participle: stripped
base: strive +s: strives past: strove ing: striving participle: striven
base: study +s: studies past: studied ing: studying participle: studied
base: suffer +s: suffers past: suffered ing: suffering participle: suffered
base: suggest +s: suggests past: suggested ing: suggesting participle: suggested
base: suppose +s: supposes past: supposed ing: supposing participle: supposed
base: surprise +s: surprises past: surprised ing: surprising participle: surprised
base: surround +s: surrounds past: surrounded ing: surrounding participle: surrounded
base: suspect +s: suspects past: suspected ing: suspecting participle: suspected
base: swallow +s: swallows past: swallowed ing: swallowing participle: swallowed
base: swear +s: swears past: swore ing: swearing participle: sworn
base: sweep +s: sweeps past: swept ing: sweeping participle: swept
base: swell +s: swells past: swelled ing: swelling participle: swollen
base: swim +s: swims past: swam ing: swimming participle: swum
base: swing +s: swings past: swung ing: swinging participle: swung
base: take +s: takes past: took ing: taking participle: taken
base: talk +s: talks past: talked ing: talking participle: talked
base: taste +s: tastes past: tasted ing: tasting participle: tasted
base: teach +s: teaches past: taught ing: teaching participle: taught
base: tear +s: tears past: tore ing: tearing participle: torn
base: tell +s: tells past: told ing: telling participle: told
base: tempt +s: tempts past: tempted ing: tempting participle: tempted
base: tend +s: tends past: tended ing: tending participle: tended
base: test +s: tests past: tested ing: testing participle: tested
base: think +s: thinks past: thought ing: thinking participle: thought
base: throw +s: throws past: threw ing: throwing participle: thrown
base: tickle +s: tickles past: tickled ing: tickling participle: tickled
base: tie +s: ties past: tied ing: tying participle: tied
base: touch +s: touches past: touched ing: touching participle: touched
base: train +s: trains past: trained ing: training participle: trained
base: travel +s: travels past: traveled ing: traveling participle: traveled
base: tremble +s: trembles past: trembled ing: trembling participle: trembled
base: trick +s: tricks past: tricked ing: tricking participle: tricked
base: trust +s: trusts past: trusted ing: trusting participle: trusted
base: try +s: tries past: tried ing: trying participle: tried
base: turn +s: turns past: turned ing: turning participle: turned
base: understand +s: understands past: understood ing: understanding participle: understood
base: undertake +s: undertakes past: undertook ing: undertaking participle: undertaken
base: uphold +s: upholds past: upheld ing: upholding participle: upheld
base: upset +s: upsets past: upset ing: upsetting participle: upset
base: urge +s: urges past: urged ing: urging participle: urged
base: use +s: uses past: used ing: using participle: used
base: vary +s: varies past: varied ing: varying participle: varied
base: visit +s: visits past: visited ing: visiting participle: visited
base: visualize +s: visualizes past: visualized ing: visualizing participle: visualized
base: vote +s: votes past: voted ing: voting participle: voted
base: wait +s: waits past: waited ing: waiting participle: waited
base: wake +s: wakes past: woke ing: waking participle: waked
base: walk +s: walks past: walked ing: walking participle: walked
base: wander +s: wanders past: wandered ing: wandering participle: wandered
base: want +s: wants past: wanted ing: wanting participle: wanted
base: warn +s: warns past: warned ing: warning participle: warned
base: wash +s: washes past: washed ing: washing participle: washed
base: waste +s: wastes past: wasted ing: wasting participle: wasted
base: watch +s: watches past: watched ing: watching participle: watched
base: wave +s: waves past: waved ing: waving participle: waved
base: wear +s: wears past: wore ing: wearing participle: worn
base: weave +s: weaves past: wove ing: weaving participle: woven
base: weep +s: weeps past: wept ing: weeping participle: wept
base: wet +s: wets past: wet ing: wetting participle: wet
base: whirl +s: whirls past: whirled ing: whirling participle: whirled
base: whisper +s: whispers past: whispered ing: whispering participle: whispered
base: whistle +s: whistles past: whistled ing: whistling participle: whistled
base: win +s: wins past: won ing: winning participle: won
base: wind +s: winds past: wound ing: winding participle: wound
base: wipe +s: wipes past: wiped ing: wiping participle: wiped
base: wish +s: wishes past: wished ing: wishing participle: wished
base: withdraw +s: withdraws past: withdrew ing: withdrawing participle: withdrawn
base: withhold +s: withholds past: withheld ing: withholding participle: withheld
base: withstand +s: withstands past: withstood ing: withstanding participle: withstood
base: wonder +s: wonders past: wondered ing: wondering participle: wondered
base: work +s: works past: worked ing: working participle: worked
base: wound +s: wounds past: wounded ing: wounding participle: wounded
base: wring +s: wrings past: wrung ing: wringing participle: wrung
base: write +s: writes past: wrote ing: writing participle: written
base: yearn +s: yearns past: yearned ing: yearning participle: yearned
base: yell +s: yells past: yelled ing: yelling participle: yelled
base: yield +s: yields past: yielded ing: yielding participle: yielded
base: zap +s: zaps past: zapped ing: zapping participle: zapped
base: zigzag +s: zigzags past: zigzagged ing: zigzagging participle: zigzagged
base: zip +s: zips past: zipped ing: zipping participle: zipped
Below are three rules (A, B, C) for punctuating parallel structures:
A. Two independent clauses can be separated by 1. a period, 2. a semicolon, or 3. a comma and a coordinating conjunction:
1. He sings. She dances.
2. He sings; she dances.
3. He sings, and she dances.
The comma is optional if at least one of the clauses is very short (five words or less), so this is also correct:
4. * He sings, she dances. (not correct)
This error is called a comma splice, which is one kind of run-on sentence. See cs and r-o in Correction Symbols Two.
5. * He sings she dances. (not correct)
This error is called a fused sentence, which is another kind of run-on sentence. See fs and r-o in Correction Symbols Two.
B. Two of any parallel structures other than independent clauses are separated by a coordinating conjunction only:
Exception: a comma is sometimes used between two adjectives which precede a noun. For example:
C. Three or more of any parallel structures, including independent clauses, are separated by commas and one coordinating conjunction before the last item:
1. xxxx, yyyy, cc zzzz
2. wwww, xxxx, yyyy, cc zzzz
3. vvvv, wwww, xxxx, yyyy, cc zzzz
4. uuuu, vvvv, wwww, xxxx, yyyy, cc zzzz
Note that, when there are three or more parallel structures, a coordinating conjunction (cc) comes before the last item. Also note that the final comma (the one before the conjunction) is optional. The parallel structures can be anything: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, subjects, predicates, subordinate clauses, independent clauses,...
Here are some examples of C.1. above (3 parallel structures):
A. At the beginning and end of a sentence (see The Sentence)
B. The comma
C. semicolon
D. The colon
E. The apostrophe
F. Dashes and parentheses
Dashes and parentheses separate extra information from the rest of the sentence. They are often used for explanations, examples, and comments. Material between the dashes and parentheses is not grammatically part of the sentence.
G. Quotation marks
H. An important note about punctuation:
The comma, the period, the semicolon, the colon, and the apostrophe are never placed at the beginning of a line.
not correct:
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adverb clauses. Also see Adjective Clauses and Noun Clauses.
A. Adverb clauses show relationships such as time, cause and effect, contrast, and condition. (See Conditional Sentences for more information on this type of adverb clause.)
B. A sentence which contains one adverb clause and one independent clause is the result of combining two clauses which have one of the relationships above. You can combine two independent clauses to make one sentence which contains an adverb clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which have one of the relationships in A above:
C. The subordinators in adverb clauses are called subordinating conjunctions. They cannot be omitted. They cannot be subjects. Here are some of the subordinating conjunctions:
D. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined) and one independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adjective clauses. Also see Adverb Clauses and Noun Clauses.
A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify nouns.
B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses to make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:
C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.
1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.
These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.
WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in academic writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.
WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject of a verb.
WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition.
THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a preposition; whom, which, and whose are the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.
WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction Symbols Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject or part of an object of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot be omitted. Here are examples with whose:
D. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.
1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective clauses above are restrictive. Here is another example:
E. Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.
1. RP + BE = 0
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about noun clauses. Also see Adjective Clauses and Adverb Clauses.
A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:
A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:
B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and using it in one of the ways listed above. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on the type of clause you are changing to a noun clause:
To change a statement to a noun clause use that:
D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:
correct:
E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a question:
not correct:
F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun clause is:
G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined) and one independent clause:
Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:
Also see The Sentence, Modal Auxiliaries, Verbs A-L, Verbs M-Z, Tenses, and Adverb Clauses.
A. Real conditional sentences can express generalizations and inferences.
1. Generalizations include facts that are always true and never change, and they include present or past habitual activities that are or were usually true.
Real conditionals expressing generalizations usually have the same tense (usually simple present or simple past) in both clauses. However, if the simple present tense is used in the if-clause, will + verb can be used in the main clause without changing the meaning.
Examples of real conditional sentences expressing facts:
Real conditionals expressing inferences usually have parallel verb phrases in both clauses. However, if a modal which explicitly expresses an inference (must or should, for example) is used in the main clause, parallel verb phrases are not used.
Examples of real conditional sentences expressing inferences:
B. Predictive conditional sentences can express predictions and plans.
1. Predictive conditional sentences usually contain simple present tense in the if-clause and will or be going to in the result clause. However, a weaker modal of prediction (may or should, for example) can be used in the result clause to express less certainty.
2. Examples of predictive conditional sentences:
C. Imaginative conditional sentences are the most difficult for many learners of English because of the unusual relationship between form (the tenses used) and meaning.
In this type of conditional sentence, past tense refers to present or future time; past perfect tense refers to past time. Another problem for many learners of English is that were (not was) is used with singular subjects. Be is the only English verb with two past tense forms, but only one of them (were) is used in imaginative conditional sentences.
Imaginative conditional sentences can express hypothetical or contrary-to-fact events or states.
1. Hypothetical events or states are unlikely but possible in the present or future.
Imaginative conditional sentences expressing hypothetical events or states have a past tense verb in the if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause.
Examples of hypothetical conditional sentences (present and/or future time):
2. Contrary-to-fact events or states are either impossible in the present time or did not happen in the past.
Imaginative conditional sentences expressing present contrary-to-fact events or states have a past verb in the if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause. Some examples:
A. Relationship between active and passive:
1. The object of the active verb is the subject of the passive verb (“English” in the example sentences below). Therefore, verbs which cannot be followed by objects (intransitive verbs) cannot be used in passive voice.
These are some common intransitive verbs: appear, arrive, come, cry, die, go, happen, occur, rain, sleep, stay, walk. These verbs cannot be used in passive voice.
2. The passive verb always contains a form of the auxiliary verb be. The form of be in the passive verb phrase corresponds to the form of the main verb in the active verb phrase (see the underlined words in the example sentences below). That is, if the active main verb is simple present tense, then a simple present tense form of be is used in the passive verb phrase; if the active main verb is -ING, then the -ING form of be is used in the passive verb phrase; and so on.
3. The main verb in a passive predicate verb phrase is always the participle form of the verb.
4. Some examples of active and passive sentences:
ACTIVE: They speak English.
PASSIVE: English is spoken.
ACTIVE: They spoke English.
PASSIVE: English was spoken.
ACTIVE: They will speak English.
PASSIVE: English will be spoken.
ACTIVE: They are going to speak English.
PASSIVE: English is going to be spoken.
ACTIVE: They are speaking English.
PASSIVE: English is being spoken.
ACTIVE: They were speaking English.
PASSIVE: English was being spoken.
ACTIVE: They have spoken English.
PASSIVE: English has been spoken.
ACTIVE: They had spoken English.
PASSIVE: English had been spoken.
ACTIVE: They will have spoken English.
PASSIVE: English will have been spoken.
5. Perfect progressive verb forms are generally used in active voice only. That is, these are good English sentences:
ACTIVE: They have been speaking English.
ACTIVE: They had been speaking English.
ACTIVE: They will have been speaking English.
But sentences like these are rarely used:
PASSIVE: English has been being spoken.
PASSIVE: English had been being spoken.
PASSIVE: English will have been being spoken.
B. Most passive sentences do not contain an agent; all active sentences contain an agent.
1. An agent is the subject of the active verb. In the example sentences above, the agent is “they” in all the active sentences; the passive sentences do not contain an agent.
2. When a passive sentence contains an agent, it is in a prepositional phrase following the verb. For example:
English is spoken by them.
In the following sentences, the noun “teachers” is the agent in both sentences. “Teachers” is also the subject of the active verb, but “exams” is the subject of the passive verb.
ACTIVE: Teachers prepare exams.
PASSIVE: Exams are prepared by teachers.
C. You should not use passive voice unless you have a good reason.
Here are some good reasons for using passive voice:
1. Passive voice is often used when the agent (the doer of an action; the subject of an active verb) is obvious, unknown, or unnecessary:
Oranges are grown in California.
Toyotas are made in Japan.
Her purse was stolen.
2. Passive voice is often used when the agent is known, but the speaker/writer doesn’t want to mention it:
She was given bad advice.
A mistake has been made.
3. Passive voice is often used when the agent is very general such as people or somebody.
English is spoken here.
The door should be locked.
4. Passive voice is often used when the speaker/writer wants to emphasize a result:
Several thousand people were killed by the earthquake.
5. Passive voice is often used when the speaker/writer wants to keep the same subject for two or more verbs but this would not be possible if both verbs were the same voice (active or passive).
For example, in a conversation about George, a speaker would probably use sentence a below rather than sentence b (both sentences are correct).
a. George had several interviews before he was hired by a software company.
b. George had several interviews before a software company hired him.
The teacher is talking to the class. (subject of verb)
The students are watching the teacher. (object of verb)
John is a teacher. (subject complement)
George gave his essay to the teacher. (object of preposition)
A. There are two types of nouns.
1. Proper nouns include names of particular people, countries, states, cities, schools, rivers, lakes, mountains, oceans, languages, months, days,…. They always begin with capital letters. Here are some examples:
B. There are two types of common nouns.
1. Count nouns have plural forms. Most count nouns have both singular and plural forms, but a few have plural forms only:
FOOD, DRINKS:
beer, bread, butter, cereal, cheese, coffee, corn, cream, flour, food, fruit, honey, ice cream, juice, margarine, meat, milk, pasta, pepper, rice, salt, spaghetti, sugar, tea, vinegar, water, wheat
ABSTRACT NOUNS, EMOTIONS:
advice, beauty, behavior, crime, equality, experience, freedom, fun, happiness, hate, health, help, homework, honesty, ignorance, information, insanity, insurance, love, news, patience, peace, permission, progress, unemployment, work
LANGUAGES, FIELDS OF STUDY:
accounting, biology, Chinese, engineering, English, geography, history, Indonesian, linguistics, literature, mathematics, music, philosophy, physics, psychology, Russian, Spanish, Turkish
CATEGORIES:
baggage, cloth, clothing, equipment, food, fruit, furniture, homework, jewelry, junk, luggage, machinery, mail, money, stuff, transportation, trash
WEATHER, NATURAL PHENOMENA:
cold, darkness, electricity, fire, fog, hail, heat, humidity, ice, lightning, rain, sleet, snow, sunshine, thunder, weather, wind
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, GASES, POWDERS, GRAINS, CLOTH:
air, beer, blood, cereal, chalk, coal, copper, corn, cotton, cream, detergent, dust, flour, fog, gasoline, glass, honey, hydrogen, ice, iron, juice, leather, lotion, milk, nylon, oil, oxygen, pepper, pollution , polyester, rice, rope, salt, shampoo, silk, smog, smoke, soap, steam, string, sugar, thread, vinegar, water, wheat, wine, wood, wool
C. Nouns can have three kinds of meaning.
1. Definite. A noun is definite when the writer and reader share information about the noun. Nouns can be definite for the following reasons:
The noun has been mentioned before:
3. Generic. A noun is generic when it represents a whole class (not an individual or individuals). Generic meaning can be expressed in different ways (in D. below, the three sentences in which the noun bicycle is used generically all have the same meaning).
D. Uses of a, an, the, and no article
1. The definite article the is used with:
A few proper nouns (names of canals, deserts, forests, oceans, rivers, seas; plural names of islands, lakes, and mountains; a few countries;… )
Singular count nouns (indefinite)
Most proper nouns (definite)
A. Paragraph A below is awful. It has three serious problems: It lacks unity, coherence, and development. (It also has some other problems, but we won’t worry about those here.)
Paragraph A:
Paragraph B:
Paragraph C:
Paragraph D:
You need to find each symbol that your teacher has written on your paper in the list below. Then you need to read the information that follows the symbol. If there is something you don’t understand after you have done this, ask for help from your tutor, your English-speaking friend, or your teacher.
This page (Correction Symbols One) contains the symbols that do not begin with a letter. Those which begin with a letter are on another page (Correction Symbols Two).
If you print this page, a few of the correction symbols may not print correctly. You should compare the printed copy with what you see on your computer screen.
Example sentences which are not correct are preceded by an asterisk (*).
#
Number: In most academic but non-technical writing, words are used for numbers that can be expressed in one or two words (for example, twenty-five), but numerals are used for other numbers (for example, 17,213,458).
1wd
One Word: These “words” should be written as one word.
2wds
Two Words: This “word” should be written as two words.
¶
Paragraph: You should begin a new paragraph here. See The Paragraph. A paragraph is a group of related sentences. Here are two basic rules about the appearance of a paragraph: ¶1 The first line of every paragraph should be indented about one inch (or five spaces). ¶2 When a sentence ends in the middle of a line, the next sentence should begin on the same line. Leave empty space at the end of a line only when the next sentence begins a new paragraph.
¶quo
Paragraph/Quotation: When writing quoted speech, begin a new paragraph each time the speaker changes.
¶u
Paragraph Unity: Every sentence in a paragraph should be related to one main idea. In academic writing, the main idea is usually expressed in a topic sentence (main idea sentence). Sometimes, the main idea is implied but not actually stated in a topic sentence. See The Paragraph. ¶u1 This paragraph needs a topic sentence. A topic sentence is usually placed at or near the beginning of the paragraph. ¶u2 This paragraph contains information that is not related to the main idea. Information that is not related to the main idea should be deleted or placed in a different paragraph.
^
Omission: Something is missing here. You need to add the missing word(s).
( )
Correct but Unnecessary: Words in parentheses are correct but are not necessary. You should delete them unless you have a good reason (for example, emphasis) for including them.
/ /
Parallelism: Use parallel structures (similar grammatical forms: words, phrases, clauses, sentences) to express similar ideas. Use parallel structures on both sides of a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but,… ). Also see Coordinating Conjunction below, Coherence below, and Parallel Structures.
Not correct:
* He loves eating tasty food, to watch movies, and he loves to ride his bicycle.
Correct:
He loves eating tasty food, watching movies, and riding his bicycle.
He loves to eat tasty food, watch movies, and ride his bicycle.
He loves eating tasty food, he loves watching movies, and he loves riding his bicycle.
You need to find each symbol that your teacher has written on your paper in the list below. Then you need to read the information that follows the symbol. If there is something you don’t understand after you have done this, ask for help from your tutor, your English-speaking friend, or your teacher.
This page (Correction Symbols Two) contains the symbols which begin with a letter and they are listed in alphabetical order. Those which do not begin with a letter are on another page (Correction Symbols One).
If you print this page, a few of the correction symbols may not print correctly. You should compare the printed copy with what you see on your computer screen.
Example sentences which are not correct are preceded by an asterisk (*).
ab
Abbreviation: Be careful about using abbreviations.
ab1 Don’t use abbreviations unless they are very common (for example: USA, TV, DVD).
ab2 When you use a period after the letters in an abbreviation, be sure to put a period after each letter.
Not correct:
* I came to the U.S.A last year.
Correct:
I came to the U.S.A. last year.
I came to the USA last year.
ab3 Don’t use & (ampersand) unless you’re copying a name or title.
Not correct:
* I bought a book & a pen.
Correct:
I bought a book and a pen.
My friend works for AT&T. (AT&T is the name of a company.)
ab4 Don’t use etc. You should not expect your reader to fill in information that you are too lazy to provide (etc. is the abbreviation for the Latin term et cetera).
act
Active: This verb should be active, not passive. See Passive Sentences.
agrp
Agreement (Pronoun-Antecedent): All pronouns must agree in number (singular, plural) with their antecedents. 3rd person singular pronouns (he, she, it) must also agree in gender (male, female, neuter) with their antecedents. See Pronoun below; also see Relative Pronouns in Relative Clauses.
agrp1 Don’t use a plural pronoun for a singular antecedent:
Not correct:
* Each student has their book.
Correct:
Each student has his/her book.
Each student has her book.
All students have their books.
Each student has his book.
agrp2 Don’t use a singular pronoun for a plural antecedent:
Not correct:
* The children want to eat because she is hungry.
Correct:
The children want to eat because they are hungry.
The child wants to eat because she is hungry.
agrp3 Don’t use a male pronoun for a female antecedent:
Not correct:
* The waitress lost his pencil.
Correct:
The waitress lost her pencil.
agrp4 Don’t use a female pronoun for a male antecedent:
Not correct:
* The waiter lost her pencil.
Correct:
The waiter lost his pencil.
agrp5 Don’t use a human pronoun for a nonhuman antecedent:
Not correct:
* The car whom I want is green.
Correct:
The car which I want is green.
Exceptions: Female pronouns (she, her,…) are often used for boats and ships; Female pronouns (she, her,…), male pronouns (he, his,…), and neuter pronouns (it, its,…) can be used for animals.
agrp6 Don’t use a nonhuman pronoun for a human antecedent:
Not correct:
* The woman which you saw was my neighbor.
Correct:
The woman whom you saw was my neighbor.
agrsv
Agreement (Subject-Verb): Present tense forms of all verbs and the past tense forms of be (was, were) must agree in number (singular, plural) with their subjects.
agrsv1 Don’t use a singular verb with a plural subject:
Not correct:
* They speaks English.
Correct:
They speak English.
agrsv2 Don’t use a plural verb with a singular subject:
Not correct:
* She speak English.
Correct:
She speaks English.
agrsv3 Don’t forget that the 1st person singular subject (I) and the 2nd person singular subject (you) take the same present tense verb form as a plural subject (unless the verb is be):
Not correct:
* I speaks English.
* You speaks English.
Correct:
I speak English.
You speak English.
agrsv4 Don’t forget that the verb be is very different from all other English verbs: be has three present tense forms (I am, he/she/it is, we/you/they are); all other verbs have two (BASE, +S); be has two past tense forms (I/he/she/it was, we/you/they were); all others have one (PAST). See Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Auxiliaries.
amb
Ambiguous: This (These) word(s) has (have) two (or more) different meanings and it is not clear which meaning you have in mind. You need to make your meaning clear.
Flying airplanes can be dangerous.
The sentence above has two possible meanings:
Airplanes that are flying can be dangerous.
It can be dangerous to fly airplanes.
aux
Auxiliary: An auxiliary is missing here. See Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Auxiliaries.
awk
Awkward: This sentence is difficult to understand. There are many possible reasons for an awkward sentence: awk1 You may have used inappropriate words. awk2 You may have incorrectly translated from your language to English. awk3 You may have tried to put too much into one sentence. Try rewriting a long awkward sentence as two or three shorter sentences. awk4 You may have used incorrect word order. awk5 You may have used ambiguous language. Words are ambiguous if they can be understood in two or more different ways. See Ambiguous above. awk6 You may have made so many mistakes in one sentence that your meaning is not clear. awk7 This material does not seem to be connected to the rest of the sentence.
awk!
Very Awkward: This sentence is impossible to understand. See Awkward above. Try explaining what you want to say to a native-speaker of English (your tutor, a friend, your teacher). Perhaps s/he can help you express your idea more clearly.
awkcomp
Awkward Comparison: You have compared two things that are so different that they cannot be compared.
Not correct:
* California drivers are better than New York.
Correct:
California drivers are better than New York drivers.
cap
Capital Letter: This (These) letter(s) must be capitalized. Capital letters look like this: A, B, C, D, E,… ; lower case letters look like this: a, b, c, d, e,… . Here are some rules about capitalization:
Every sentence begins with a capital letter. The pronoun I is always a capital letter. Proper nouns begin with capital letters. Proper nouns include the names of specific persons, places, and things; nationalities and languages; religions and their members; days and months; organizations and institutions;.... See Nouns and Articles. Titles (Mr., Ms., Dr.,...) that precede names begin with capital letters. The first and last words and all content words (nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives) in titles of books, movies, student compositions, and so on must begin with capital letters.
cbut
Correct, but...: This sentence is grammatically correct, but the meaning is not appropriate. Perhaps you don’t understand what you have said.
cc
Coordinating Conjunction: Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect parallel structures (words, phrases, clauses). The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet. See Parallelism below and Parallel Structures.
coh
Coherence: The relationships between sentences (and between paragraphs) should be clear and natural. The reader should be able to follow the writer’s thought without difficulty. See The Paragraph. To achieve coherence, the writer should:
coh1 Arrange information in a clear logical order. There are many different clear logical arrangements. Here are a few: Time (chronological, reverse chronological). Time order is especially important in narration and a description of a process. Space (for example, left to right, top to bottom, near to far, east to west,...). A spatial arrangement is especially important in physical descriptions. Inductive (particular to general). Deductive (general to particular). Importance (least to most, most to least).
coh2 Use appropriate transitional devices. For example: Pronouns (see below) which refer to previously mentioned nouns. Repetition (see below) of previously mentioned words/ideas. Parallel structures. See Parallelism below and Parallel Structures. Transitional words and phrases. See Transitions below.
contr
Contraction: You have used a contraction incorrectly. You should use the full form instead of a contraction.
contr1 Contractions are not generally used in formal academic writing. However, usage varies. The most common contractions are often acceptable. If you are in doubt, use the full form rather than a contraction.
contr2 Subject pronoun + auxiliary contractions are never used as the last word in a sentence or clause. Examples: I’m, I’ve, he’s, she’s, you’re, you’ve, they’re, they’ve, she’ll, he’d,…. See Pronoun below and Auxiliary Verbs.
Are you studying English?
Not correct:
* Yes, I’m.
Correct:
Yes, I am.
cs
Comma Splice: You have incorrectly separated two independent clauses with a comma. This is one type of run-on sentence (see below).
Not correct:
* I wrote the composition, I got a bad grade.
Correct:
I wrote the composition, but I got a bad grade.
I wrote the composition. I got a bad grade.
I wrote the composition; I got a bad grade.
dang
Dangling Modifier: A modifying phrase must refer to the noun or pronoun closest to it. Usually the modifier precedes the noun or pronoun; sometimes it follows it.
Not correct:
* Driving to school, the freeway was crowded.
Driving to school is a dangling modifier because the freeway cannot drive. There are two ways to correct dangling modifiers:
dang1 Revise the sentence to make the modifier clearly refer to the correct word:
Correct:
Driving to school this morning, I thought the freeway was unusually crowded.
dang2 Change the modifying phrase to a subordinate clause:
Correct:
When I was driving to school this morning, the freeway was unusually crowded.
det
Determiner: A determiner is needed here. Determiners include articles (a, an, the), demonstratives (this, that, these, those), numbers (one, two, three,...), quantity terms (many, several, some,...), possessive adjectives (my, your, her,...), possessive nouns (John’s, the teacher’s,...). Singular count nouns almost always require determiners; other nouns (noncount, plural count) often require determiners. See Nouns and Articles.
details
Details: You need to provide your reader with more information (details). Details include colors, shapes, sizes, numbers, statistics, names, titles, facts, examples, quotations, anecdotes,…. Also see Development below and The Paragraph.
dev
Development: Develop your ideas adequately. Supply enough information so that your reader will understand what you want to say. See Details above and The Paragraph.
dp
Delete Punctuation: Incorrect punctuation should be deleted. See Punctuation.
Not correct:
* The book, that I want is very expensive.
Correct:
The book that I want is very expensive.
Very few punctuation marks can be placed at the beginning of a line. Commas, periods, question marks, exclamation points, colons, and semicolons are never placed at the beginning of a line.
Not correct:
* Billy, Fred, and George hoped to finish school
, get good jobs, and travel around the world.
Correct:
Billy, Fred, and George hoped to finish school,
get good jobs, and travel around the world.
dw
Deadwood: Eliminate deadwood (incorrect or unnecessary words). dw1 This (These) word(s) is (are) not correct and must be deleted. dw2 This (These) word(s) is (are) not necessary and should be deleted.
eg?
For example?: You need to provide an example (or some examples) here (e.g. is the abbreviation for the Latin term exempli gratia).
frag
Fragment: This group of words is not a complete sentence, but you have punctuated it as if it were a complete sentence. See The Sentence. A group of words may be a fragment for several reasons:
frag1 The verb is missing.
Not correct:
* Billy dead.
Correct:
Billy is dead.
frag2 The verb phrase is incomplete.
Not correct:
* He trying to swim.
Correct:
He was trying to swim.
frag3 The subject is missing.
Not correct:
* Didn’t want to take lessons.
Correct:
He didn’t want to take lessons.
frag4 There is a subject but no predicate.
Not correct:
* His friends, who miss him very much.
Correct:
His friends, who miss him very much, are sad.
frag5 It is a subordinate clause; see Adverb Clauses, Noun Clauses, and/or Adjective Clauses. A subordinate clause is part of a sentence; it cannot be a sentence by itself. You need to either add it to the preceding or following sentence or add an independent clause to it.
Not correct:
* Because he is gone.
Correct:
His friends are sad because he is gone.
fs
Fused Sentence: You have incorrectly punctuated two (or more) independent clauses as one sentence. This is one type of run-on sentence (see below).
Not correct:
* He fixed the car it runs well now.
Correct:
He fixed the car, and it runs well now.
He fixed the car. It runs well now.
He fixed the car; it runs well now.
ill
Illegible: This is very difficult (or impossible) to read because your handwriting (or typing or printing) is illegible.
inccomp
Incomplete Comparison: This group of words contains only part of a comparative form. See Wrong Form 3 & 4 below.
Not correct:
* Los Angeles is bigger.
* This book is important than that one.
inccomp1 You must either complete the comparison:
Correct:
Los Angeles is bigger than San Francisco.
This book is more important than that one.
inccomp2 Or you must not use a comparative form:
Correct:
Los Angeles is big.
This book is important.
logic?
Not Logical: This sentence (These sentences) may be grammatically correct, but it doesn’t (they don’t) make sense.
logic?1 What you have said appears to be nonsense.
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
logic?2 You have said two (or more) things that seem to contradict each other: They cannot both (all) be true.
He bought a car last year. He has never owned a car.
marg
Margin: You should leave margins along the top, bottom, left, and right edges of your paper. One inch along the top, bottom, and right and one-and-one-half inches on the left are standard margins, but you should ask your teacher how wide the margins should be.
nc
Noncount Noun: This word is a noncount (or uncountable) noun. nc1 Noncount nouns are singular. nc2 The indefinite article (a, an) cannot be used with noncount nouns. nc3 Numbers (one, two, three,...), plural quantity expressions (many, few, several,...), and plural demonstratives (these, those) cannot be used with noncount nouns.
no ¶
No Paragraph: You should not begin a new paragraph here. This material should be part of the preceding paragraph.
no cap
No Capital: This (These) letter(s) should not be capitalized.
no pass
No Passive: This verb should be active, not passive. See Passive Sentences.
no subj
No Subject: This verb does not have a subject.
Not correct:
* After checked my son, the doctor left.
no subj1 Sometimes this error can be corrected just by adding a subject.
Correct:
After she checked my son, the doctor left.
no subj2 Sometimes this error can be corrected by using a different word form.
Correct:
After checking my son, the doctor left.
ns
Nonstandard: Your sentence may be correct and your meaning may be clear, but you have not used Standard American English.
ns1 You may have used a nonstandard word order. Move word(s) as indicated.
Nonstandard:
He had a white and black TV.
He was walking down and up the street.
Standard:
He had a black and white TV.
He was walking up and down the street.
ns2 You may have used British English vocabulary.
Nonstandard:
We took the lift to the top floor.
Standard:
We took the elevator to the top floor.
ns3 You may have used a word in a way that a native speaker of English would not use it.
Nonstandard:
She returned home to visit her parent.
Standard:
She returned home to visit her mother.
She returned home to visit her father.
She returned home to visit her parents.
ntwd
Not a word: This “word” is not an English word.
pass
Passive: This verb should be passive, not active. See Passive Sentences.
plagiarism
Plagiarism: This material at least appears to have been plagiarized. See your teacher.
If you have used the words or ideas of another person as if they were your own, you have committed plagiarism. Plagiarism is an extremely serious offense and writers who are guilty of it are subject to severe penalties.
When you use someone else’s words or paraphrase someone else’s ideas, you must indicate that you are quoting (by using quotation marks) or paraphrasing (for example, by saying something like “according to _____”) and you must identify the source of the quotation or paraphrased material (either in your text or in a footnote and bibliography). If you don’t, you are guilty of plagiarism.
See the following Web site for more information about plagiarism:
http://www.sjlibrary.org/services/literacy/info_comp/plagiarism.htm
pl
Plural: This word should be plural.
Here is one of the most common mistakes involving a plural:
Not correct:
* Only one of the student did not complete the assignment.
Correct:
Only one of the students did not complete the assignment.
The phrase one of the must be followed by a plural noun or pronoun.
prep
Preposition: There is a problem which involves a preposition here.
prep1 A preposition is necessary here. Here are some prepositions:
about, above, across, after, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, despite, down, during, for, from, in, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, over, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, until, up, upon, with, within, without
prep2 You have used the wrong preposition. Here are some common preposition mistakes:
Not correct:
* The houses are made by wood.
* George married with Shirley.
* Shirley is married with George.
* We discussed about the movie.
Correct:
The houses are made of wood.
George married Shirley.
Shirley is married to George.
We discussed the movie.
We talked about the movie.
pro
Pronoun: You should replace this (these) word(s) with a pronoun. These are the personal pronouns:
subject/ object/ possessives (adjectives/pronouns)/reflexive
I/me/my/mine/myself
you/you/your/yours/yourself
he/ him/ his/ his/ himself
she/her/her/hers/herself
it/it/its/___/itself
we/us/our/ours/ourselves
you/you/your/yours/yourselves
they/them/their/theirs/themselves
Also see Adjective Clauses for a list of relative pronouns.
Really?
Do you really mean this?: It is difficult to believe. Perhaps you have used the wrong words or perhaps you are exaggerating or perhaps you don’t understand what you have said.
ref
Pronoun Reference: It is not clear what this pronoun refers to. A pronoun should clearly refer to a nearby word or words. See Pronoun above.
Not correct:
* Patty sent a postcard to Katy when she was in Nevada.
(Who was in Nevada, Patty or Katy?)
Correct:
When Patty was in Nevada, she sent a postcard to Katy.
rep
Repetition: Don’t repeat (words, phrases, clauses, sentences, ideas) unless you have a good reason to do so (for example, emphasis or coherence). See Coherence above.
r-o
Run-On Sentence: You have incorrectly punctuated two or more independent clauses as one sentence.
You can correct a run-on sentence either by supplying appropriate punctuation and/or a conjunction or by changing one of the clauses to a subordinate clause. See The Sentence, Adverb Clauses, Noun Clauses, Adjective Clauses, Comma Splice above, Fused Sentence above, Parallel Structures, and Punctuation.
sing
Singular: This word should be singular.
sp
Spelling: This word is not spelled correctly. Consult your dictionary. If the word is a verb, see Verbs. If you cannot find the word, consult your tutor or English-speaking friend.
sp Br
British Spelling: There are some differences between British and American spelling. You should use the American spelling. Consult your dictionary.
title
Title: Here are some rules about titles: title1 A title is almost always a noun or noun phrase. title2 A title is almost never a clause. title3 A title never ends with a period. title4 A title must be centered on the top line. title5 There must be one empty line between the title and the first line of the first paragraph. title6 The first word, the last word, and all content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) in a title must begin with capital letters. title7 If you mention the title of a book, newspaper, magazine, movie, play, or musical work in your composition, you should underline it (or print it in italics). title8 Don’t underline the title of your own composition, and don’t print it in italics. title9 If you mention the title of a TV program, song, short story, article, chapter, or essay in your composition, you should put it in quotation marks (“___”). title10 Don’t put the title of your own composition in quotation marks.
tns
Tense: You’ve used an incorrect tense (present, past) and/or aspect (perfect, progressive) and/or modal. Be sure you are logical and consistent in your use of tense, aspect, and modals. See Auxiliary Verbs, Modal Auxiliaries, Verbs A-L, Verbs M-Z, and Tenses.
tr
Transition: A transitional word or phrase is needed here. Transitions are words or phrases that indicate relationships between sentences, clauses, ideas, paragraphs,.... Also see Coherence above. Here are some transitional words and phrases:
To indicate addition: moreover, further, furthermore, besides, likewise, also, again, in addition, equally important, next, first, second, third, in the first place, in the second place, finally, last,.... To indicate comparison: similarly, likewise, in the same way,.... To indicate contrast: however, still, nevertheless, even so, on the other hand, on the contrary, notwithstanding, for all that, in contrast, at the same time, otherwise, instead,.... To indicate place: here, beyond, nearby, opposite to, adjacent to, on the opposite side,.... To indicate purpose: to this end, for this purpose, with this object,.... To indicate result: hence, therefore, accordingly, consequently, thus, thereupon, as a result, then,.... To indicate time: meanwhile, at length, soon, then, next, after a few days, in the meantime, later, now, in the past, afterward,.... To indicate summary, repetition, exemplification, intensification: to sum up, in brief, on the whole, in sum, in summary, in short, as I have said, that is, in other words, to be sure, as has been noted, for example, for instance, in fact, indeed, at last, to tell the truth, in any event, thus,....
vi
Verb-Intransitive: This verb is intransitive. Intransitive verbs cannot have objects. Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive voice. See Passive Sentences.
vt
Verb-Transitive: This verb is transitive. Transitive verbs must have objects.
wdiv
Word Division: When you reach the right margin and don’t have enough space for a complete word, you can divide the word with a hyphen (-) and put part of it on the next line. Here are some rules about word division: wdiv1 Divide a word only between syllables. If you are not sure about syllables, look up the word in a dictionary. wdiv2 Never divide a word that has only one syllable. wdiv3 Never divide a word so that one letter stands alone. Don’t divide words like this: a- lone, e- nough, eas- y. wdiv4 Never divide a word that has five or fewer letters. Don’t divide words like this: on- ly, of- ten, hap- py. wdiv5 Never divide a word so that a two-letter ending comes at the beginning of a line. Don’t divide words like this: want- ed, dress-es. wdiv6 When a word contains a double consonant, divide the word between the repeated consonants like this: sup- ply, con- nect, dif- ficulty. wdiv7 However, if a word ends with a double consonant and has an added ending, divide the word between the original word and the ending like this: spell- ing, miss- ing. wdiv8 Divide a hyphenated word only at a hyphen like this: father-in-law.
wf
Wrong Form: This word is an inappropriate form. You must change it to an appropriate form. Consult your dictionary.
wf1 Change this word to its noun form.
wf2 Change this (these) word(s) to a predicate verb form (that is, a form with tense or a modal or a modal-like auxiliary). See “What is a predicate verb?” in The Sentence. Also see Tenses, Auxiliary Verbs, Modal Auxiliaries, Verbs A-L, and Verbs M-Z.
wf3 Change this word to an adjective form. Adjectives have three forms:
wf3a Base:
Mary is a tall woman.
Fred has an expensive car.
wf3b Comparative:
George is taller than Mary.
Mary’s car was more expensive than Fred’s.
wf3c Superlative:
Fred is the tallest person in the group.
George’s car was the most expensive.
wf3d Many nouns can be used as adjectives. When a noun is used as an adjective, it is usually in its singular form:
Not correct:
* She has a three-years-old daughter.
Correct:
She has a three-year-old daughter.
wf4 Change this word to an adverb form. Adverbs have three forms:
wf4a Base:
Fred studied hard.
George participated actively.
wf4b Comparative:
George studied harder than Fred.
Mary participated more actively than George.
wf4c Superlative:
Mary studied the hardest.
Fred participated the most actively.
wf5 Change this word to its BASE verb form. See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z.
wf6 Change this word to its participle form. See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z.
wf6a The participle form may be part of a passive or perfect verb phrase:
The recipe was written by Fred. (passive)
Fred has written the recipe. (present perfect)
wf6b Or the participle form may be a modifier:
Many cooks never use written recipes.
wf7 Change this word to its infinitive form (TO + BASE). See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z.
wf8 Change this word to its ING form. See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z.
wf8a The ING form may be part of a progressive verb phrase:
George is sleeping.
wf8b Or the ING form may be a modifier:
Don’t disturb the sleeping man.
wf8cOr the ING form may be a noun (gerund).
Sleeping is his favorite pastime.
wf9 Change this pronoun to its subject form. See Pronoun above.
wf10 Change this pronoun to its object form. See Pronoun above.
wf11 Change this word to its possessive form. See Pronoun above for the possessive forms of the personal pronouns. See Adjective Clauses for the possessive relative pronoun. For the possessive forms of nouns and indefinite pronouns, follow these rules:
Add apostrophe + s to singular nouns and indefinite pronouns (George’s girlfriend, the teacher’s book, somebody’s bicycle). Add apostrophe only to plural nouns which end with –s (the boys’ dreams, the students’ compositions). Add apostrophe + s to plural nouns which don’t end with –s (the women’s movement, the children’s toys).
wordy
Wordy: You have used many more words than necessary to say what you want to say. Try to express the same content with fewer words.
ww
Wrong Word: This (These) word(s) is (are) not appropriate.
Rewritten and re-posted by
Yohannes Telaumbanua, S.Hum, M.Pd
English Department
State Polytechnics of Padang - West Sumatra - Indonesia
English Lecturer
Cell Phone : +6 081 374 375 436
E-mail : yohannes_telaumbanua@yahoo.com
Blog: yohannestelaumbanua.blogspot.com
FB Yohannes Telaumbanua
Designed by John Fleming
Faculty Directory
E-mail: flemingjohn@fdha.edu
On June 29, 2007, He retired from teaching after 40 years in the classroom (31 at De Anza). He will then continue to work part-time at De Anza as the Language Arts Division Scheduler through June 2009. After June 30, 2009, He will no longer be employed by De Anza College.
Sentences are used in all languages. Sentences are used in both speech and writing. You are learning about writing in English. When we talk about the sentence in this class, we are talking about the written English sentence. We are not talking about sentences in other languages. We are not talking about spoken sentences.
A. What is a sentence?
A written English sentence is a group of words with four characteristics:
1. All sentences begin with a capital letter: A, B, C,….
(The other kind of letters are called lower case: a, b, c,…. )
2. All sentences end with a period or an exclamation point or a question mark: . ! ?
3. A sentence contains at least one clause.
That is, a sentence contains at least one subject and at least one predicate.
4. All sentences follow a standard word order. These are correct sentences:
The dog bit the man.
The man bit the dog.But this is not a sentence because the words (the same used in the two sentences above) are not arranged in a standard English word order:
*The bit man dog the.
B. What is a clause?
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.
1. A clause tells us that someone or something (subject) is or was or does or did something (predicate).
A subject is usually a noun or pronoun.
A predicate always contains a verb. A predicate may also contain other things (adverb, object, complement,…), but a predicate always contains a verb.
2. A clause may be a sentence: Mary sings.
3. A clause may be a part of a sentence: Mary sings and Bill plays the guitar.
4. Some examples of clauses:
C. What is a predicate verb?
A predicate verb has the following three characteristics:
1. A predicate verb has a subject. A subject is usually a noun or a pronoun, but a clause can be a subject.
2. A predicate verb has voice (active or passive; see Passive Sentences).
3. A predicate verb has tense (past or present; see Tenses) or a modal (see Modal Auxiliaries).
These are the predicate verbs in the clauses above:
is (present tense, active voice)
loves (present tense, active voice)
is (present tense, active voice)
might have (modal, active voice)
is not served (present tense, passive voice)
D. What is a dependent clause?
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and predicate. A dependent clause usually begins with a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns (see Adjective Clauses), subordinating conjunctions (see Adverb Clauses), and noun clause markers (see Noun Clauses). Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.
1. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence by itself. A dependent clause that is not part of a sentence is a fragment. That is, a dependent clause which begins with a capital letter and ends with a period is a fragment. Don’t write fragments.
2. A dependent clause can only be part of a sentence. Every sentence must have at least one independent clause.
3. There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. Some dependent clauses look like this:
4. Subordinators can sometimes be omitted, so dependent clauses sometimes look like independent clauses (Subject + Predicate).
Object relative pronouns (see Adjective Clauses) can usually be omitted.
The bike which he got for Christmas is beautiful.
The bike he got for Christmas is beautiful.The noun clause marker (see Noun Clauses) that can be omitted if it is not the first word in a sentence.
He knows that his bike is beautiful.
He knows his bike is beautiful.5. Below are some examples of sentences with one independent clause and one dependent clause. The dependent clauses are underlined.
George is a boy who loves his bike.
George’s bike, which is painted red and blue, is new.
Because his bike had a flat tire, George walked to school.
George eats whatever is on his plate.
Tenses
A. Four facts about tense that you should know: 1. Tense and time are not the same.The word tense refers to the forms of verbs in certain languages (including English of course, but many languages do not have tense). The word time is far more difficult to define, but we all experience it. Time is what we measure with clocks, watches, and calendars, for example.2. Tense and time are related, but it is not a simple (one-to-one) relationship.
That is, present tense does not always mean present time; past tense does not always mean past time. The following simple present tense sentence does not refer to the present time (unless you happen to be reading this very early in the morning):
The sun rises in the east.
In fact, the relationship between tense and time is quite complex. A past tense verb, for example, can refer to a future time:
3. It is impossible to completely describe the English system of tenses in a few pages.If I had an exam tomorrow, I would study tonight.
English, like all human languages, is extremely complex and almost infinitely flexible. And, as you probably know, nearly every rule about language has many exceptions. Below you will find descriptions of the major English tenses (predicate verb forms). I’ve tried to give you some basic information about the forms and meanings of the twelve traditional tenses. While I believe everything that follows is correct, I know it is not complete.4. English has only two true tenses: present & past.
Everything else that is usually referred to as tense is really a combination of tense, aspect (continuous, perfect), and/or modality. I will follow the traditional practice and refer to all of these combinations as tenses. However, if you examine these verb forms carefully, you will see that every one contains either present tense, past tense, or a modal auxiliary.
B. The twelve traditional tenses: All examples below are active; see Passive Sentences for examples of passive verbs.
Forms of the predicate verb below do not always apply to the verb be; however, they do apply to all other English verbs. See Auxiliary Verbs for more information about the verb be.
See Conditional Sentences for some unusual uses of tenses.
See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z for explanations and examples of the five forms of English verbs: BASE, +S, PAST, ING, PARTICIPLE.
Many teachers and textbooks use progressive instead of continuous; they are the same (continuous = progressive).
Simple Present
Forms of the predicate verb:
1. BASE (if the subject is I, we, you, they, or any plural)
2. +S (if the subject is he, she, it, or any singular other than I or you)
Meanings & examples:
1. Habitual activity
We study every day.
The class meets every Tuesday and Thursday.2. Present state or condition (stative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below.)
They seem happy.
He knows we are waiting for him.3. General truth or natural law
Bears live in the forest.
The sun rises in the east.4. Planned or scheduled future events
We take a final exam at the end of the term.
The plane leaves at 9:00 AM tomorrow.5. Future time in adverb clauses (see Adverb Clauses)
Before we take the final exam, we will have to study.
I will call her after I talk to her friends tomorrow.6. In real and predictive conditional sentence (see Conditional Sentences)
Simple Past
Form of the predicate verb: PAST
Meanings & examples:
1. Completed past action
We studied all day yesterday.
I took the exam early this morning.2. In imaginative conditional sentences (see Conditional Sentences)
Simple Future
Forms of the predicate verb:
1. WILL + BASE
2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + BASE
Meaning & examples:
Future time
We will have lunch with George tomorrow.
He is going to study in the library after lunch.
Present Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Form of the predicate verb: AM/IS/ARE + ING
Meanings & examples:
1. Present time
We are preparing for the final exam.
George is studying in the library right now.2. Planned or scheduled future events
We are taking a final exam at the end of the term.
The plane is leaving at 9:00 AM tomorrow.3. To emphasize that a state or action is temporary
Mary is living in California. (She might move soon.)
George lives in California. (Simple present: no change is implied.)
Past Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Form of the predicate verb: WAS/WERE + ING
Meanings & examples:
1. Emphasizes duration and/or repetition of past action
He was studying all day yesterday.
We were stopping at every red light.2. Past action that began before and continued until or after some other past action or time
He was riding his bike until he got a car.
She was sleeping when I got home.
She was sleeping at 2:00 AM. (She went to sleep at 12:00 midnight; she woke up at 8:00 AM.)3. Two actions that continued for some time at about the same time
They were watching TV while he was studying.
Future Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Forms of the predicate verb:
1. WILL + BE + ING
2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + BE + ING
Meanings & examples:
1. Emphasizes duration and/or repetition of future action
We will be working all day tomorrow.
He is going to be cooking dinner every night next week.2. Indicates future action that will begin before and continue until or after some other future action or time
She will be studying until 4:00.
He is going to be working at noon.
Present Perfect
Form of the predicate verb: HAVE/HAS + PARTICIPLE
Meanings & examples:
The present perfect indicates that a past action or state has relevance in the present. The following are some possible explanations for present relevance of a past action or state:
1. Something happened at an unspecified past time
Mary has left school.Present perfect cannot be used with a specified past time. If a past time is specified, a past tense must be used.
not correct
* Mary has left school last year.correct
Mary left school last year.2. Something happened in the very recent past
I have just finished my homework. (I finished it a few minutes ago.)3. Something happened in the past and it has affected the present
Thank you for inviting me to lunch, but I have already eaten.
Because I ate lunch (past action) a short time ago, I am not eating lunch with you now.4. Something happened in the past and it may happen again in the future
I have visited Los Angeles many times.
President Kennedy visited Los Angeles many times.
I may visit Los Angeles again in the future, but Kennedy will not because he is dead.5. Something began in the past and continues in the present
We have known each other for many years.
We met many years ago and we still know each other now.6. Something happened in the past but within a present time period
My class has had two quizzes this term.
I have felt several earthquakes during my lifetime.
Past Perfect
Form of the predicate verb: HAD + PARTICIPLE
Meanings & examples:
1. Indicates past action was completed before another past action or past time
He had finished the work before she gave him the money.
He had washed both cars by 9:00 AM.2. In imaginative conditional sentences (see Conditional Sentences)
Future Perfect
Forms of the predicate verb:
1. WILL + HAVE + PARTICIPLE
2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + HAVE + PARTICIPLE
Meaning & examples:
Indicates future action that will be completed before another future action or future time
They will have read the book before they take the test.
They will have finished the test by 6:00.
Present Perfect Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Form of the predicate verb: HAVE/HAS + BEEN + ING
Meanings & examples:
Indicates a situation that began in the past and continues in the present
He has been living in California since 1995.
Past Perfect Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Form of the predicate verb: HAD + BEEN + ING
Meaning & examples:
Indicates a past action that continued for some time before some other past action or time
He had been working for two weeks before she paid him.
By 8:00, they had been watching TV for two hours.
Future Perfect Continuous (nonstative verbs only; see Stative Verbs below)
Forms of the predicate verb:
1. WILL + HAVE + BEEN + ING
2. AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + HAVE + BEEN + ING
Meaning & examples:
Indicates future action that continues until some other future action or time
I will have been driving for three hours before I stop.
He is going to have been working for two hours by 9:00.
C. Stative verbs are not used in continuous tenses
A stative verb (love for example) refers to a state of knowledge, perception, or condition; a nonstative verb (eat) refers to an action.
Simple present tense forms of stative verbs are used to mean present time.
correct
Fred loves hamburgers. (stative)not correct
* Fred is loving hamburgers.Present continuous forms of nonstative verbs are used to mean present time.
not correct
* Fred eats a hamburger now.correct
Fred is eating a hamburger now. (nonstative)Verbs, like most words, can have two (or more) meanings. Some verbs have both stative and nonstative meanings. Here are some of the more common verbs with both stative and nonstative meanings:
appear, feel, have, look, see, smell, taste, think, weigh
The food tastes good. (stative; the food is not doing anything)
Fred is tasting the food. (nonstative; Fred is performing an action)
Fred weighs 195 pounds. (stative; Fred is not doing anything)
Fred is weighing himself. (nonstative; Fred is performing an action)Some common stative verbs:
verbs indicating possession: belong, have (=possess), own, possess
verbs indicating mental states: believe, doubt, imagine, know, mean, recognize, remember, suppose, think (=believe), understand, wonder
verbs related to the senses: appear, feel, hear, look (=appear), see, smell, taste
verbs referring to emotions: appreciate, desire, dislike, hate, like, love
other stative verbs: contain, cost, equal, measure, need, owe, prefer, seem, want, weigh
Auxiliary Verbs
English has three auxiliary verbs: be, do, have.A. Be is used as the auxiliary in continuous tenses and passive voice (in all sentences: affirmative and negative, statements and questions).
Forms without tense:
base: be
ing: being
participle: beenForms with tense:
present: am, is, are
past: was, were
B. Do is used as the auxiliary in simple past and simple present tenses (in questions and negatives only).
Forms without tense:
base: do
ing: doing
participle: doneForms with tense:
present: do, does
past: did
C. Have is used as the auxiliary in perfect tenses (in all sentences: affirmative and negative, statements and questions).
Forms without tense:
base: have
ing: having
participle: hadForms with tense:
present: have, has
past: had
D. Be, do, and have are not always auxiliary verbs. They can also be main verbs. Main verbs are underlined in the examples below.
She is a student. (“is” is a verb)
She is studying English. (“is” is an auxiliary)
She does her homework. (“does” is a verb)
She doesn’t enjoy homework. (“does” is an auxiliary)
Does she get good grades? (“Does” is an auxiliary)
She has a computer. (“has” is a verb)
She has used a computer for three years. (“has” is an auxiliary)
Modal Auxiliaries
The modal auxiliaries (or modals) include the following:can, could, may, might, must, should, will, would, . . .
Modals are always followed by the base form of a verb or auxiliary verb.
Modals are always the same form no matter what the subject is.
In standard American English, a predicate verb phrase cannot contain more than one modal.
correct
He will be able to go.not correct
* He will can go.
Below are example sentences containing the modal may and the verb go. Notice that the form of the modal does not change. Also notice that the base form of a verb or auxiliary verb always follows the modal.
I may go.
You may go.
He may go.
It may go.
We may go.
They may go.
He may have gone.
They may have gone.
He may be going.
They may be going.
He may have been going.
They may have been going.
Modals and related verb phrases add meanings to verbs. Below are some of those meanings:
Ability/Availability
future: will be able to
present: can, am/is/are able to
past: could, was/were able to
Requests
present/future: can, could, will, would
Permission
future: will be allowed to
present/future: may, can, could, am/is/are allowed to
past: could, was/were allowed to
Possibility
present/future: may, might, could
past: may have, might have, could have
Impossibility
present/future: couldn’t, can’t
past: couldn’t have
Advisability
present/future: should, ought to, had better
past: should have, ought to have, had better have
Expectation
present/future: should, ought to
past: should have, ought to have
Necessity
future: will have to
present/future: must, have to, has to
past: had to
Lack of Necessity
future: won’t have to
present/future: don’t have to, doesn’t have to
past: didn’t have to
Prohibition
present/future: must not, may not, cannot
past: could not
Logical Deduction (=Probability)
present: must, have to, has to
past: must have, have to have, has to have
SOCIAL MODALS
The choice of modal depends partly on the social situation.
We often use formal language with strangers (people we don’t know) and superiors (people with some power over us such as our employers, doctors, and teachers).
We often use informal language with our equals (our friends and family) and subordinates (people we have some power over such as our employees or children).
General requests (present and/or future):
Will you help me? (Informal Are you willing?)Requests for permission (present and/or future):
Would you help me (Formal Are you willing?)
Can you help me? (Informal Are you able?)
Could you help me (Formal Are you able?)
May I leave the room? (Formal)Expressing suggestions, advice, warnings, necessity (present and/or future):
Might I leave the room? (Formal rarely used)
Could I leave the room? (Less formal
Can I leave the room? (Informal)
The choice of modal depends partly on the urgency of the message or the authority of the speaker/writer or both.
Suggestions:
You could see the doctor.
You might see the doctor.
Advice:
You should see the doctor.
You ought to see the doctor.
Warning/strong advice:
You had better see the doctor.
Strong advice/necessity:
You have to see the doctor.
You have got to see the doctor.
You must see the doctor.
No choice:
You will see the doctor.
MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about present time)
The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.
Someone is knocking at the door.
That could be Fred.
That might be Fred.
= It’s possible. I’m less than 50% sure.That may be Fred.
= It’s possible. I’m less than 60% sure.That should be Fred.
That ought to be Fred.
= I’m expecting Fred and I think he’s here.That must be Fred.
That has to be Fred.
That has got to be Fred.
= It’s probably Fred. I have a good reason to believe it is Fred.That will be Fred.
= I believe it is Fred. I’m about 99% sure.That can’t be Mary.
That couldn’t be Mary.
= It’s impossible. I’m about 99% sure.That is Fred.
= I know it’s Fred. I’m 100% sure.
MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about past time)
The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.
Someone was knocking at the door.
That could have been Fred.
That might have been Fred.
= It’s possible. I’m less than 50% sure.That may have been Fred.
= It’s possible. I’m less than 60% sure.That must have been Fred.
That has to have been Fred.
That has got to have been Fred.
= It was probably Fred. I have a good reason to believe it was Fred.That couldn’t have been Mary.
= It’s impossible. I’m about 99% sure.That was Fred.
= I know it was Fred. I’m 100% sure.
MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about future time) The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.
What will the weather be like tomorrow?
It could rain tomorrow.
It might rain tomorrow.
= It’s possible. I’m less than 50% sure.It may rain tomorrow.
= It’s possible. I’m less than 60% sure.It should rain tomorrow.
It ought to rain tomorrow.
= I expect it will rain.It will rain tomorrow.
= I believe it is going to rain. I’m about 99% sure.It couldn’t snow tomorrow.
= It’s impossible. I’m about 99% sure.
Verbs A-L
A. English verbs can be divided into two groups based on the number of forms. 1. Be has eight forms (see Auxiliary Verbs).2. All other English verbs have five forms (see the list of common English verbs below).
base (sometimes called the simple or bare infinitive form)
+s
past
ing (traditionally called the present participle)
participle (traditionally called the past participle)
B. Functions of the five verb forms (all verbs except be):
1. The base form has functions both with and without tense.
a. With tense: The base form is the simple present tense form in statements when the subject is I, we, you, they, or any plural.
b. Without tense: The base form is used:
1. in simple present and simple past tense verb phrases when the tense is on the auxiliary do (that is, in questions and negatives) no matter what the subject is;
2. in verb phrases which contain any of the modal, phrasal modal, or modal-like auxiliaries (see Modal Auxiliaries) no matter what the subject is;
2. The +s form has only one function. It is the present tense form in statements when the subject is he, she, it, or any singular other than I or you.3. with to to make infinitives.
3. The past form has only one function. It is the past tense form in statements no matter what the subject is.
4. The ing form has no tense. It has three functions:
a. It is the main verb in continuous verb phrases.
b. It can be a noun. (It is called a gerund when it functions as a noun.)
c. It can be a modifier.5. The participle form has no tense. It has two functions:
a. It is the main verb in perfect and passive verb phrases.
b. It can be a modifier.
C. Below is a list of the five forms of some common English verbs. Also see Verbs M-Z.
base: accept +s: accepts past: accepted ing: accepting participle: accepted
base: accuse +s: accuses past: accused ing: accusing participle: accused
base: act +s: acts past: acted ing: acting participle: acted
base: add +s: adds past: added ing: adding participle: added
base: admit +s: admits past: admitted ing: admitting participle: admitted
base: advertise +s: advertises past: advertised ing: advertising participle: advertised
base: advise +s: advises past: advised ing: advising participle: advised
base: affect +s: affects past: affected ing: affecting participle: affected
base: afford +s: affords past: afforded ing: affording participle: afforded
base: agree +s: agrees past: agreed ing: agreeing participle: agreed
base: allow +s: allows past: allowed ing: allowing participle: allowed
base: analyze +s: analyzes past: analyzed ing: analyzing participle: analyzed
base: announce +s: announces past: announced ing: announcing participle: announced
base: answer +s: answers past: answered ing: answering participle: answered
base: appear +s: appears past: appeared ing: appearing participle: appeared
base: apply +s: applies past: applied ing: applying participle: applied
base: appoint +s: appoints past: appointed ing: appointing participle: appointed
base: appreciate +s: appreciates past: appreciated ing: appreciating participle: appreciated
base: argue +s: argues past: argued ing: arguing participle: argued
base: arise +s: arises past: arose ing: arising participle: arisen
base: arouse +s: arouses past: aroused ing: arousing participle: aroused
base: arrange +s: arranges past: arranged ing: arranging participle: arranged
base: arrest +s: arrests past: arrested ing: arresting participle: arrested
base: arrive +s: arrives past: arrived ing: arriving participle: arrived
base: ask +s: asks past: asked ing: asking participle: asked
base: assign +s: assigns past: assigned ing: assigning participle: assigned
base: assist +s: assists past: assisted ing: assisting participle: assisted
base: attempt +s: attempts past: attempted ing: attempting participle: attempted
base: avoid +s: avoids past: avoided ing: avoiding participle: avoided
base: bake +s: bakes past: baked ing: baking participle: baked
base: bark +s: barks past: barked ing: barking participle: barked
base: bear +s: bears past: bore ing: bearing participle: born
base: beat +s: beats past: beat ing: beating participle: beaten
base: become +s: becomes past: became ing: becoming participle: become
base: beg +s: begs past: begged ing: begging participle: begged
base: begin +s: begins past: began ing: beginning participle: begun
base: bend +s: bends past: bent ing: bending participle: bent
base: bet +s: bets past: bet ing: betting participle: bet
base: bid +s: bids past: bid ing: bidding participle: bid
base: bind +s: binds past: bound ing: binding participle: bound
base: bite +s: bites past: bit ing: biting participle: bitten
base: bleed +s: bleeds past: bled ing: bleeding participle: bled
base: blow +s: blows past: blew ing: blowing participle: blown
base: boil +s: boils past: boiled ing: boiling participle: boiled
base: bore +s: bores past: bored ing: boring participle: bored
base: borrow +s: borrows past: borrowed ing: borrowing participle: borrowed
base: bother +s: bothers past: bothered ing: bothering participle: bothered
base: bow +s: bows past: bowed ing: bowing participle: bowed
base: break +s: breaks past: broke ing: breaking participle: broken
base: breathe +s: breathes past: breathed ing: breathing participle: breathed
base: breed +s: breeds past: bred ing: breeding participle: bred
base: bring +s: brings past: brought ing: bringing participle: brought
base: broadcast +s: broadcasts past: broadcast ing: broadcasting participle: broadcast
base: brush +s: brushes past: brushed ing: brushing participle: brushed
base: build +s: builds past: built ing: building participle: built
base: burn +s: burns past: burned ing: burning participle: burned
base: burst +s: bursts past: burst ing: bursting participle: burst
base: buy +s: buys past: bought ing: buying participle: bought
base: calculate +s: calculates past: calculated ing: calculating participle: calculated
base: call +s: calls past: called ing: calling participle: called
base: care +s: cares past: cared ing: caring participle: cared
base: carry +s: carries past: carried ing: carrying participle: carried
base: cash +s: cashes past: cashed ing: cashing participle: cashed
base: cast +s: casts past: cast ing: casting participle: cast
base: catch +s: catches past: caught ing: catching participle: caught
base: cater +s: caters past: catered ing: catering participle: catered
base: cause +s: causes past: caused ing: causing participle: caused
base: change +s: changes past: changed ing: changing participle: changed
base: charge +s: charges past: charged ing: charging participle: charged
base: chase +s: chases past: chased ing: chasing participle: chased
base: chat +s: chats past: chatted ing: chatting participle: chatted
base: cheat +s: cheats past: cheated ing: cheating participle: cheated
base: chew +s: chews past: chewed ing: chewing participle: chewed
base: choose +s: chooses past: chose ing: choosing participle: chosen
base: clean +s: cleans past: cleaned ing: cleaning participle: cleaned
base: climb +s: climbs past: climbed ing: climbing participle: climbed
base: cling +s: clings past: clung ing: clinging participle: clung
base: close +s: closes past: closed ing: closing participle: closed
base: comb +s: combs past: combed ing: combing participle: combed
base: come +s: comes past: came ing: coming participle: come
base: command +s: commands past: commanded ing: commanding participle: commanded
base: compel +s: compels past: compelled ing: compelling participle: compelled
base: confuse +s: confuses past: confused ing: confusing participle: confused
base: consent +s: consents past: consented ing: consenting participle: consented
base: consider +s: considers past: considered ing: considering participle: considered
base: continue +s: continues past: continued ing: continuing participle: continued
base: control +s: controls past: controlled ing: controlling participle: controlled
base: cook +s: cooks past: cooked ing: cooking participle: cooked
base: cost +s: costs past: cost ing: costing participle: cost
base: cough +s: coughs past: coughed ing: coughing participle: coughed
base: count +s: counts past: counted ing: counting participle: counted
base: cower +s: cowers past: cowered ing: cowering participle: cowered
base: crash +s: crashes past: crashed ing: crashing participle: crashed
base: creep +s: creeps past: crept ing: creeping participle: crept
base: cruise +s: cruises past: cruised ing: cruising participle: cruised
base: cry +s: cries past: cried ing: crying participle: cried
base: cut +s: cuts past: cut ing: cutting participle: cut
base: dance +s: dances past: danced ing: dancing participle: danced
base: dare +s: dares past: dared ing: daring participle: dared
base: date +s: dates past: dated ing: dating participle: dated
base: deal +s: deals past: dealt ing: dealing participle: dealt
base: decide +s: decides past: decided ing: deciding participle: decided
base: declare +s: declares past: declared ing: declaring participle: declared
base: defend +s: defends past: defended ing: defending participle: defended
base: defer +s: defers past: deferred ing: deferring participle: deferred
base: deny +s: denies past: denied ing: denying participle: denied
base: depend +s: depends past: depended ing: depending participle: depended
base: deposit +s: deposits past: deposited ing: depositing participle: deposited
base: describe +s: describes past: described ing: describing participle: described
base: deserve +s: deserves past: deserved ing: deserving participle: deserved
base: despise +s: despises past: despised ing: despising participle: despised
base: deter +s: deters past: deterred ing: deterring participle: deterred
base: determine +s: determines past: determined ing: determining participle: determined
base: die +s: dies past: died ing: dying participle: died
base: dig +s: digs past: dug ing: digging participle: dug
base: discover +s: discovers past: discovered ing: discovering participle: discovered
base: dislike +s: dislikes past: disliked ing: disliking participle: disliked
base: dive +s: dives past: dove ing: diving participle: dived
base: divide +s: divides past: divided ing: dividing participle: divided
base: do +s: does past: did ing: doing participle: done
base: draw +s: draws past: drew ing: drawing participle: drawn
base: dream +s: dreams past: dreamed ing: dreaming participle: dreamed
base: dress +s: dresses past: dressed ing: dressing participle: dressed
base: drink +s: drinks past: drank ing: drinking participle: drunk
base: drive +s: drives past: drove ing: driving participle: driven
base: dye +s: dyes past: dyed ing: dyeing participle: dyed
base: eat +s: eats past: ate ing: eating participle: eaten
base: enjoy +s: enjoys past: enjoyed ing: enjoying participle: enjoyed
base: enter +s: enters past: entered ing: entering participle: entered
base: entertain +s: entertains past: entertained ing: entertaining participle: entertained
base: erase +s: erases past: erased ing: erasing participle: erased
base: escape +s: escapes past: escaped ing: escaping participle: escaped
base: examine +s: examines past: examined ing: examining participle: examined
base: excite +s: excites past: excited ing: exciting participle: excited
base: exist +s: exists past: existed ing: existing participle: existed
base: exit +s: exits past: exited ing: exiting participle: exited
base: expect +s: expects past: expected ing: expecting participle: expected
base: explain +s: explains past: explained ing: explaining participle: explained
base: fail +s: fails past: failed ing: failing participle: failed
base: fall +s: falls past: fell ing: falling participle: fallen
base: fear +s: fears past: feared ing: fearing participle: feared
base: feed +s: feeds past: fed ing: feeding participle: fed
base: feel +s: feels past: felt ing: feeling participle: felt
base: fight +s: fights past: fought ing: fighting participle: fought
base: fill +s: fills past: filled ing: filling participle: filled
base: find +s: finds past: found ing: finding participle: found
base: finish +s: finishes past: finished ing: finishing participle: finished
base: fit +s: fits past: fit ing: fitting participle: fit
base: fix +s: fixes past: fixed ing: fixing participle: fixed
base: flee +s: flees past: fled ing: fleeing participle: fled
base: fling +s: flings past: flung ing: flinging participle: flung
base: fly +s: flies past: flew ing: flying participle: flown
base: follow +s: follows past: followed ing: following participle: followed
base: fool +s: fools past: fooled ing: fooling participle: fooled
base: forbid +s: forbids past: forbade ing: forbidding participle: forbidden
base: force +s: forces past: forced ing: forcing participle: forced
base: forget +s: forgets past: forgot ing: forgetting participle: forgotten
base: forgive +s: forgives past: forgave ing: forgiving participle: forgiven
base: found +s: founds past: founded ing: founding participle: founded
base: freeze +s: freezes past: froze ing: freezing participle: frozen
base: frighten +s: frightens past: frightened ing: frightening participle: frightened
base: fry +s: fries past: fried ing: frying participle: fried
base: get +s: gets past: got ing: getting participle: gotten
base: give +s: gives past: gave ing: giving participle: given
base: glimmer +s: glimmers past: glimmered ing: glimmering participle: glimmered
base: glitter +s: glitters past: glittered ing: glittering participle: glittered
base: gnaw +s: gnaws past: gnawed ing: gnawing participle: gnawed
base: go +s: goes past: went ing: going participle: gone
base: grind +s: grinds past: ground ing: rinding participle: ground
base: grow +s: grows past: grew ing: growing participle: grown
base: guess +s: guesses past: guessed ing: guessing participle: guessed
base: hang +s: hangs past: hanged ing: hanging participle: hanged
base: hang +s: hangs past: hung ing: hanging participle: hung
base: happen +s: happens past: happened ing: happening participle: happened
base: hate +s: hates past: hated ing: hating participle: hated
base: have +s: has past: had ing: having participle: had
base: hear +s: hears past: heard ing: hearing participle: heard
base: heat +s: heats past: heated ing: heating participle: heated
base: help +s: helps past: helped ing: helping participle: helped
base: hesitate +s: hesitates past: hesitated ing: hesitating participle: hesitated
base: hide +s: hides past: hid ing: hiding participle: hidden
base: hike +s: hikes past: hiked ing: hiking participle: hiked
base: hire +s: hires past: hired ing: hiring participle: hired
base: hit +s: hits past: hit ing: hitting participle: hit
base: hold +s: holds past: held ing: holding participle: held
base: hope +s: hopes past: hoped ing: hoping participle: hoped
base: hover +s: hovers past: hovered ing: hovering participle: hovered
base: hunt +s: hunts past: hunted ing: hunting participle: hunted
base: hurt +s: hurts past: hurt ing: hurting participle: hurt
base: imagine +s: imagines past: imagined ing: imagining participle: imagined
base: imitate +s: imitates past: imitated ing: imitating participle: imitated
base: imply +s: implies past: implied ing: implying participle: implied
base: improve +s: improves past: improved ing: improving participle: improved
base: infer +s: infers past: inferred ing: inferring participle: inferred
base: inform +s: informs past: informed ing: informing participle: informed
base: injure +s: injures past: injured ing: injuring participle: injured
base: insist +s: insists past: insisted ing: insisting participle: insisted
base: instruct +s: instructs past: instructed ing: instructing participle: instructed
base: intend +s: intends past: intended ing: intending participle: intended
base: introduce +s: introduces past: introduced ing: introducing participle: introduced
base: invent +s: invents past: invented ing: inventing participle: invented
base: invite +s: invites past: invited ing: inviting participle: invited
base: jam +s: jams past: jammed ing: jamming participle: jammed
base: jerk +s: jerks past: jerked ing: jerking participle: jerked
base: jingle +s: jingles past: jingled ing: jingling participle: jingled
base: jog +s: jogs past: jogged ing: jogging participle: jogged
base: join +s: joins past: joined ing: joining participle: joined
base: joke +s: jokes past: joked ing: joking participle: joked
base: jolt +s: jolts past: jolted ing: jolting participle: jolted
base: judge +s: judges past: judged ing: judging participle: judged
base: juggle +s: juggles past: juggled ing: juggling participle: juggled
base: jump +s: jumps past: jumped ing: jumping participle: jumped
base: keep +s: keeps past: kept ing: keeping participle: kept
base: kill +s: kills past: killed ing: killing participle: killed
base: kneel +s: kneels past: knelt ing: kneeling participle: knelt
base: knock +s: knocks past: knocked ing: knocking participle: knocked
base: know +s: knows past: knew ing: knowing participle: known
base: land +s: lands past: landed ing: landing participle: landed
base: laugh +s: laughs past: laughed ing: laughing participle: laughed
base: lay +s: lays past: laid ing: laying participle: laid
base: lead +s: leads past: led ing: leading participle: led
base: leap +s: leaps past: leaped ing: leaping participle: leaped
base: learn +s: learns past: learned ing: learning participle: learned
base: lease +s: leases past: leased ing: leasing participle: leased
base: leave +s: leaves past: left ing: leaving participle: left
base: lend +s: lends past: lent ing: lending participle: lent
base: let +s: lets past: let ing: letting participle: let
base: lie +s: lies past: lay ing: lying participle: lain
base: lie +s: lies past: lied ing: lying participle: lied
base: lift +s: lifts past: lifted ing: lifting participle: lifted
base: light +s: lights past: lit ing: lighting participle: lit
base: like +s: likes past: liked ing: liking participle: liked
base: liquefy +s: liquefies past: liquefied ing: liquefying participle: liquefied
base: listen +s: listens past: listened ing: listening participle: listened
base: live +s: lives past: lived ing: living participle: lived
base: loan +s: loans past: loaned ing: loaning participle: loaned
base: look +s: looks past: looked ing: looking participle: looked
base: lose +s: loses past: lost ing: losing participle: lost
base: love +s: loves past: loved ing: loving participle: loved
Verbs M-Z
A. English verbs can be divided into two groups based on the number of forms. 1. Be has eight forms (see Auxiliary Verbs).2. All other English verbs have five forms (see the list of common English verbs below).
base (sometimes called the simple or bare infinitive form)
+s
past
ing (traditionally called the present participle)
participle (traditionally called the past participle)
B. Functions of the five verb forms (all verbs except be):
1. The base form has functions both with and without tense.
a. With tense: The base form is the simple present tense form in statements when the subject is I, we, you, they, or any plural.
b. Without tense: The base form is used:
1. in simple present and simple past tense verb phrases when the tense is on the auxiliary do (that is, in questions and negatives) no matter what the subject is;
2. in verb phrases which contain any of the modal, phrasal modal, or modal-like auxiliaries (see Modal Auxiliaries) no matter what the subject is;
2. The +s form has only one function. It is the present tense form in statements when the subject is he, she, it, or any singular other than I or you.3. with to to make infinitives.
3. The past form has only one function. It is the past tense form in statements no matter what the subject is.
4. The ing form has no tense. It has three functions:
a. It is the main verb in continuous verb phrases.
b. It can be a noun. (It is called a gerund when it functions as a noun.)
c. It can be a modifier.5. The participle form has no tense. It has two functions:
a. It is the main verb in perfect and passive verb phrases.
b. It can be a modifier.
C. Below is a list of the five forms of some common English verbs. Also see Verbs A-L.
base: make +s: makes past: made ing: making participle: made
base: manage +s: manages past: managed ing: managing participle: managed
base: mean +s: means past: meant ing: meaning participle: meant
base: meet +s: meets past: met ing: meeting participle: met
base: memorize +s: memorizes past: memorized ing: memorizing participle: memorized
base: mention +s: mentions past: mentioned ing: mentioning participle: mentioned
base: miss +s: misses past: missed ing: missing participle: missed
base: misspell +s: misspells past: misspelled ing: misspelling participle: misspelled
base: mistake +s: mistakes past: mistook ing: mistaking participle: mistaken
base: mix +s: mixes past: mixed ing: mixing participle: mixed
base: moan +s: moans past: moaned ing: moaning participle: moaned
base: move +s: moves past: moved ing: moving participle: moved
base: murder +s: murders past: murdered ing: murdering participle: murdered
base: mutter +s: mutters past: muttered ing: muttering participle: muttered
base: narrate +s: narrates past: narrated ing: narrating participle: narrated
base: need +s: needs past: needed ing: needing participle: needed
base: neglect +s: neglects past: neglected ing: neglecting participle: neglected
base: notice +s: notices past: noticed ing: noticing participle: noticed
base: nullify +s: nullifies past: nullified ing: nullifying participle: nullified
base: observe +s: observes past: observed ing: observing participle: observed
base: occur +s: occurs past: occurred ing: occurring participle: occurred
base: offend +s: offends past: offended ing: offending participle: offended
base: offer +s: offers past: offered ing: offering participle: offered
base: open +s: opens past: opened ing: opening participle: opened
base: order +s: orders past: ordered ing: ordering participle: ordered
base: overcome +s: overcomes past: overcame ing: overcoming participle: overcome
base: overdo +s: overdoes past: overdid ing: overdoing participle: overdone
base: overtake +s: overtakes past: overtook ing: overtaking participle: overtaken
base: overthrow +s: overthrows past: overthrew ing: overthrowing participle: overthrown
base: own +s: owns past: owned ing: owning participle: owned
base: pack +s: packs past: packed ing: packing participle: packed
base: paint +s: paints past: painted ing: painting participle: painted
base: pamper +s: pampers past: pampered ing: pampering participle: pampered
base: pant +s: pants past: panted ing: panting participle: panted
base: pass +s: passes past: passed ing: passing participle: passed
base: pay +s: pays past: paid ing: paying participle: paid
base: peek +s: peeks past: peeked ing: peeking participle: peeked
base: permit +s: permits past: permitted ing: permitting participle: permitted
base: persuade +s: persuades past: persuaded ing: persuading participle: persuaded
base: pick +s: picks past: picked ing: picking participle: picked
base: plan +s: plans past: planned ing: planning participle: planned
base: play +s: plays past: played ing: playing participle: played
base: plead +s: pleads past: pleaded ing: pleading participle: pleaded
base: pledge +s: pledges past: pledged ing: pledging participle: pledged
base: point +s: points past: pointed ing: pointing participle: pointed
base: polish +s: polishes past: polished ing: polishing participle: polished
base: postpone +s: postpones past: postponed ing: postponing participle: postponed
base: practice +s: practices past: practiced ing: practicing participle: practiced
base: pray +s: prays past: prayed ing: praying participle: prayed
base: prefer +s: prefers past: preferred ing: preferring participle: preferred
base: prepare +s: prepares past: prepared ing: preparing participle: prepared
base: prescribe +s: prescribes past: prescribed ing: prescribing participle: prescribed
base: present +s: presents past: presented ing: presenting participle: presented
base: pretend +s: pretends past: pretended ing: pretending participle: pretended
base: prevent +s: prevents past: prevented ing: preventing participle: prevented
base: produce +s: produces past: produced ing: producing participle: produced
base: promise +s: promises past: promised ing: promising participle: promised
base: pronounce +s: pronounces past: pronounced ing: pronouncing participle: pronounced
base: prove +s: proves past: proved ing: proving participle: proved
base: pull +s: pulls past: pulled ing: pulling participle: pulled
base: push +s: pushes past: pushed ing: pushing participle: pushed
base: put +s: puts past: put ing: putting participle: put
base: putter +s: putters past: puttered ing: puttering participle: puttered
base: quake +s: quakes past: quaked ing: quaking participle: quaked
base: qualify +s: qualifies past: qualified ing: qualifying participle: qualified
base: quarrel +s: quarrels past: quarreled ing: quarreling participle: quarreled
base: quibble +s: quibbles past: quibbled ing: quibbling participle: quibbled
base: quiet +s: quiets past: quieted ing: quieting participle: quieted
base: quit +s: quits past: quit ing: quitting participle: quit
base: quiver +s: quivers past: quivered ing: quivering participle: quivered
base: quote +s: quotes past: quoted ing: quoting participle: quoted
base: race +s: races past: raced ing: racing participle: raced
base: rain +s: rains past: rained ing: raining participle: rained
base: raise +s: raises past: raised ing: raising participle: raised
base: read +s: reads past: read ing: reading participle: read
base: realize +s: realizes past: realized ing: realizing participle: realized
base: recite +s: recites past: recited ing: reciting participle: recited
base: refer +s: refers past: referred ing: referring participle: referred
base: refuse +s: refuses past: refused ing: refusing participle: refused
base: rely +s: relies past: relied ing: relying participle: relied
base: remember +s: remembers past: remembered ing: remembering participle: remembered
base: remind +s: reminds past: reminded ing: reminding participle: reminded
base: rent +s: rents past: rented ing: renting participle: rented
base: repair +s: repairs past: repaired ing: repairing participle: repaired
base: repeat +s: repeats past: repeated ing: repeating participle: repeated
base: reply +s: replies past: replied ing: replying participle: replied
base: request +s: requests past: requested ing: requesting participle: requested
base: require +s: requires past: required ing: requiring participle: required
base: resent +s: resents past: resented ing: resenting participle: resented
base: resist +s: resists past: resisted ing: resisting participle: resisted
base: resolve +s: resolves past: resolved ing: resolving participle: resolved
base: return +s: returns past: returned ing: returning participle: returned
base: review +s: reviews past: reviewed ing: reviewing participle: reviewed
base: revolve +s: revolves past: revolved ing: revolving participle: revolved
base: ride +s: rides past: rode ing: riding participle: ridden
base: ring +s: rings past: rang ing: ringing participle: rung
base: rip +s: rips past: ripped ing: ripping participle: ripped
base: rise +s: rises past: rose ing: rising participle: risen
base: roast +s: roasts past: roasted ing: roasting participle: roasted
base: rob +s: robs past: robbed ing: robbing participle: robbed
base: rub +s: rubs past: rubbed ing: rubbing participle: rubbed
base: run +s: runs past: ran ing: running participle: run
base: save +s: saves past: saved ing: saving participle: saved
base: say +s: says past: said ing: saying participle: said
base: scream +s: screams past: screamed ing: screaming participle: screamed
base: see +s: sees past: saw ing: seeing participle: seen
base: seek +s: seeks past: sought ing: seeking participle: sought
base: seem +s: seems past: seemed ing: seeming participle: seemed
base: sell +s: sells past: sold ing: selling participle: sold
base: send +s: sends past: sent ing: sending participle: sent
base: separate +s: separates past: separated ing: separating participle: separated
base: set +s: sets past: set ing: setting participle: set
base: sew +s: sews past: sewed ing: sewing participle: sewn
base: shake +s: shakes past: shook ing: shaking participle: shaken
base: shed +s: sheds past: shed ing: shedding participle: shed
base: shine +s: shines past: shined ing: shining participle: shined
base: shine +s: shines past: shone ing: shining participle: shone
base: shiver +s: shivers past: shivered ing: shivering participle: shivered
base: shoot +s: shoots past: shot ing: shooting participle: shot
base: shout +s: shouts past: shouted ing: shouting participle: shouted
base: show +s: shows past: showed ing: showing participle: shown
base: shrink +s: shrinks past: shrank ing: shrinking participle: shrunk
base: shut +s: shuts past: shut ing: shutting participle: shut
base: sigh +s: sighs past: sighed ing: sighing participle: sighed
base: sing +s: sings past: sang ing: singing participle: sung
base: sink +s: sinks past: sank ing: sinking participle: sunk
base: sip +s: sips past: sipped ing: sipping participle: sipped
base: sit +s: sits past: sat ing: sitting participle: sat
base: slay +s: slays past: slew ing: slaying participle: slain
base: sleep +s: sleeps past: slept ing: sleeping participle: slept
base: slide +s: slides past: slid ing: sliding participle: slid
base: slit +s: slits past: slit ing: slitting participle: slit
base: smell +s: smells past: smelled ing: smelling participle: smelled
base: smile +s: smiles past: smiled ing: smiling participle: smiled
base: smoke +s: smokes past: smoked ing: smoking participle: smoked
base: sneak +s: sneaks past: sneaked ing: sneaking participle: sneaked
base: sneeze +s: sneezes past: sneezed ing: sneezing participle: sneezed
base: sniff +s: sniffs past: sniffed ing: sniffing participle: sniffed
base: speak +s: speaks past: spoke ing: speaking participle: spoken
base: speed +s: speeds past: sped ing: speeding participle: sped
base: spell +s: spells past: spelled ing: spelling participle: spelled
base: spend +s: spends past: spent ing: spending participle: spent
base: spill +s: spills past: spilled ing: spilling participle: spilled
base: spin +s: spins past: spun ing: spinning participle: spun
base: spit +s: spits past: spit ing: spitting participle: spit
base: split +s: splits past: split ing: splitting participle: split
base: spoil +s: spoils past: spoiled ing: spoiling participle: spoiled
base: spread +s: spreads past: spread ing: spreading participle: spread
base: spring +s: springs past: sprang ing: springing participle: sprung
base: stand +s: stands past: stood ing: standing participle: stood
base: start +s: starts past: started ing: starting participle: started
base: steal +s: steals past: stole ing: stealing participle: stolen
base: step +s: steps past: stepped ing: stepping participle: stepped
base: stick +s: sticks past: stuck ing: sticking participle: stuck
base: sting +s: stings past: stung ing: stinging participle: stung
base: stink +s: stinks past: stank ing: stinking participle: stunk
base: stir +s: stirs past: stirred ing: stirring participle: stirred
base: stop +s: stops past: stopped ing: stopping participle: stopped
base: strike +s: strikes past: struck ing: striking participle: struck
base: string +s: strings past: strung ing: stringing participle: strung
base: strip +s: strips past: stripped ing: stripping participle: stripped
base: strive +s: strives past: strove ing: striving participle: striven
base: study +s: studies past: studied ing: studying participle: studied
base: suffer +s: suffers past: suffered ing: suffering participle: suffered
base: suggest +s: suggests past: suggested ing: suggesting participle: suggested
base: suppose +s: supposes past: supposed ing: supposing participle: supposed
base: surprise +s: surprises past: surprised ing: surprising participle: surprised
base: surround +s: surrounds past: surrounded ing: surrounding participle: surrounded
base: suspect +s: suspects past: suspected ing: suspecting participle: suspected
base: swallow +s: swallows past: swallowed ing: swallowing participle: swallowed
base: swear +s: swears past: swore ing: swearing participle: sworn
base: sweep +s: sweeps past: swept ing: sweeping participle: swept
base: swell +s: swells past: swelled ing: swelling participle: swollen
base: swim +s: swims past: swam ing: swimming participle: swum
base: swing +s: swings past: swung ing: swinging participle: swung
base: take +s: takes past: took ing: taking participle: taken
base: talk +s: talks past: talked ing: talking participle: talked
base: taste +s: tastes past: tasted ing: tasting participle: tasted
base: teach +s: teaches past: taught ing: teaching participle: taught
base: tear +s: tears past: tore ing: tearing participle: torn
base: tell +s: tells past: told ing: telling participle: told
base: tempt +s: tempts past: tempted ing: tempting participle: tempted
base: tend +s: tends past: tended ing: tending participle: tended
base: test +s: tests past: tested ing: testing participle: tested
base: think +s: thinks past: thought ing: thinking participle: thought
base: throw +s: throws past: threw ing: throwing participle: thrown
base: tickle +s: tickles past: tickled ing: tickling participle: tickled
base: tie +s: ties past: tied ing: tying participle: tied
base: touch +s: touches past: touched ing: touching participle: touched
base: train +s: trains past: trained ing: training participle: trained
base: travel +s: travels past: traveled ing: traveling participle: traveled
base: tremble +s: trembles past: trembled ing: trembling participle: trembled
base: trick +s: tricks past: tricked ing: tricking participle: tricked
base: trust +s: trusts past: trusted ing: trusting participle: trusted
base: try +s: tries past: tried ing: trying participle: tried
base: turn +s: turns past: turned ing: turning participle: turned
base: understand +s: understands past: understood ing: understanding participle: understood
base: undertake +s: undertakes past: undertook ing: undertaking participle: undertaken
base: uphold +s: upholds past: upheld ing: upholding participle: upheld
base: upset +s: upsets past: upset ing: upsetting participle: upset
base: urge +s: urges past: urged ing: urging participle: urged
base: use +s: uses past: used ing: using participle: used
base: vary +s: varies past: varied ing: varying participle: varied
base: visit +s: visits past: visited ing: visiting participle: visited
base: visualize +s: visualizes past: visualized ing: visualizing participle: visualized
base: vote +s: votes past: voted ing: voting participle: voted
base: wait +s: waits past: waited ing: waiting participle: waited
base: wake +s: wakes past: woke ing: waking participle: waked
base: walk +s: walks past: walked ing: walking participle: walked
base: wander +s: wanders past: wandered ing: wandering participle: wandered
base: want +s: wants past: wanted ing: wanting participle: wanted
base: warn +s: warns past: warned ing: warning participle: warned
base: wash +s: washes past: washed ing: washing participle: washed
base: waste +s: wastes past: wasted ing: wasting participle: wasted
base: watch +s: watches past: watched ing: watching participle: watched
base: wave +s: waves past: waved ing: waving participle: waved
base: wear +s: wears past: wore ing: wearing participle: worn
base: weave +s: weaves past: wove ing: weaving participle: woven
base: weep +s: weeps past: wept ing: weeping participle: wept
base: wet +s: wets past: wet ing: wetting participle: wet
base: whirl +s: whirls past: whirled ing: whirling participle: whirled
base: whisper +s: whispers past: whispered ing: whispering participle: whispered
base: whistle +s: whistles past: whistled ing: whistling participle: whistled
base: win +s: wins past: won ing: winning participle: won
base: wind +s: winds past: wound ing: winding participle: wound
base: wipe +s: wipes past: wiped ing: wiping participle: wiped
base: wish +s: wishes past: wished ing: wishing participle: wished
base: withdraw +s: withdraws past: withdrew ing: withdrawing participle: withdrawn
base: withhold +s: withholds past: withheld ing: withholding participle: withheld
base: withstand +s: withstands past: withstood ing: withstanding participle: withstood
base: wonder +s: wonders past: wondered ing: wondering participle: wondered
base: work +s: works past: worked ing: working participle: worked
base: wound +s: wounds past: wounded ing: wounding participle: wounded
base: wring +s: wrings past: wrung ing: wringing participle: wrung
base: write +s: writes past: wrote ing: writing participle: written
base: yearn +s: yearns past: yearned ing: yearning participle: yearned
base: yell +s: yells past: yelled ing: yelling participle: yelled
base: yield +s: yields past: yielded ing: yielding participle: yielded
base: zap +s: zaps past: zapped ing: zapping participle: zapped
base: zigzag +s: zigzags past: zigzagged ing: zigzagging participle: zigzagged
base: zip +s: zips past: zipped ing: zipping participle: zipped
Parallel Structures
The term parallel structures simply refers to similar grammatical forms. The forms can be words, phrases, clauses, or even sentences. Coordinating conjunctions (cc) always link parallel structures. The coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but (which are always coordinating conjunctions), and so, for, yet (which can be coordinating conjunctions but are also used in other ways). Also see cc (coordinating conjunctions) and / / (parallelism) in Correction Symbols Two. Here are some examples of sentences containing parallel structures:Mary owns a house and a car. (nouns)
Her house is white, gray, and green. (adjectives)
She takes good care of her house and of her car. (prepositional phrases)
Her house is old, but her car is new. (independent clauses)
Below are three rules (A, B, C) for punctuating parallel structures:
A. Two independent clauses can be separated by 1. a period, 2. a semicolon, or 3. a comma and a coordinating conjunction:
1. He sings. She dances.
2. He sings; she dances.
3. He sings, and she dances.
The comma is optional if at least one of the clauses is very short (five words or less), so this is also correct:
He sings and she dances.Note that two independent clauses cannot be separated by 4. a comma only or 5. nothing.
4. * He sings, she dances. (not correct)
This error is called a comma splice, which is one kind of run-on sentence. See cs and r-o in Correction Symbols Two.
5. * He sings she dances. (not correct)
This error is called a fused sentence, which is another kind of run-on sentence. See fs and r-o in Correction Symbols Two.
B. Two of any parallel structures other than independent clauses are separated by a coordinating conjunction only:
Fred and George want to see Mary. (nouns)
Mary got in her car and drove away. (verbs)
I don’t know where she is or when she will return. (subordinate clauses)A comma is rarely used between just two parallel structures. Only a coordinating conjunction is used between two parallel structures (unless they are independent clauses as in A. above).
Exception: a comma is sometimes used between two adjectives which precede a noun. For example:
It is a dark, ugly room.
C. Three or more of any parallel structures, including independent clauses, are separated by commas and one coordinating conjunction before the last item:
1. xxxx, yyyy, cc zzzz
2. wwww, xxxx, yyyy, cc zzzz
3. vvvv, wwww, xxxx, yyyy, cc zzzz
4. uuuu, vvvv, wwww, xxxx, yyyy, cc zzzz
Note that, when there are three or more parallel structures, a coordinating conjunction (cc) comes before the last item. Also note that the final comma (the one before the conjunction) is optional. The parallel structures can be anything: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, subjects, predicates, subordinate clauses, independent clauses,...
Here are some examples of C.1. above (3 parallel structures):
He sings, she dances, and everybody claps. (independent clauses)
He won the lottery, quit his job, and bought presents for all his friends. (predicates)
He bought a car, a motorcycle, and a computer. (nouns)
The motorcycle is red, white, and blue. (adjectives)
Everybody wants to meet him, to talk to him, and to get some money from him. (infinitive phrases)
Punctuation
Correct punctuation will help your reader understand your writing; incorrect punctuation may make your writing difficult or impossible to understand. English punctuation (unlike English spelling and English grammar) is fairly simple and regular. Here are the most important rules of English punctuation.A. At the beginning and end of a sentence (see The Sentence)
1. All sentences begin with a capital letter: A, B, C, D, E,….
(The other kind of letters are lower case: a, b, c, d, e,….)
2. All sentences end with a period or a question mark or an exclamation point: . ? !
B. The comma
1. A comma is used between items in a list when the list includes at least three items (see Parallel Structures):
I bought a book, a compact disk, and a videotape.
George, Fred, and Mary went shopping.
He got up, he took a shower, he ate breakfast, and he left the house.
Note that a coordinating conjunction comes before the last item. The comma before the conjunction is optional. Note also that the items can be words, phrases, or clauses and they must be parallel (see Parallel Structures).
2. A comma is used after a phrase or adverb clause (see Adverb Clauses) that comes before the subject of a sentence:
While I was cooking breakfast, the rest of the family was sleeping.
Before fixing an omelet, you must break some eggs.
Last night, I saw a really good movie.
If an introductory phrase is very short (2-3 words), the comma is optional:
Last night I saw a really good movie.
If an adverb clause comes after the main clause, the comma is not used:
The rest of the family was sleeping while I was cooking breakfast.
3. Commas separate extra (non-restrictive) words, phrases, or clauses from the rest of the sentence:
California, which is the most populous state, is in the western US.
California, the most populous state, is in the western US.
Also see Adjective Clauses.
4. A comma and a coordinating conjunction are used between two independent clauses (see Parallel Structures):
He watched TV, but she went to bed.
I went to the library, and I worked on my composition for several hours.
Our teacher says that English is easy, but the students don’t believe it.
The comma is optional when at least one of the clauses is short (5 words or less):
He watched TV but she went to bed.
5. A comma separates a quotation from the rest of the sentence:
The doctor said, “I will see you in the morning.”
“I will see you in the morning, ” the doctor said.
6. A comma separates a tag question from the rest of the sentence:
English is easy, isn’t it?
Billy didn’t know how to swim, did he?
They shoot horses, don’t they?
C. semicolon
1. A semicolon can be used between closely related independent clauses (see Parallel Structures):
English is easy; mathematics is difficult.
A semicolon is often used between independent clauses when the second clause includes a transition:
English is easy; however, mathematics is difficult.
2. A semicolon separates items in a list when at least one of the items contains a comma:
We visited San Francisco, California; Portland, Oregon; and Seattle, Washington.
D. The colon
1. A colon can introduce a list:
There are several things a student in a composition class needs to bring to every class meeting: paper, a pen, a dictionary, and the textbook.
2. A colon can introduce an explanation:
Some students are afraid to take composition classes: They think writing is too hard.
E. The apostrophe
1. An apostrophe indicates the place in a contraction where a letter or letters have been omitted:
is not = isn’ t
was not = wasn’ t
does not = doesn’ t
did not = didn’ t
she is = she’ s
they had = they’ d
2. An apostrophe indicates possession:
a. Add apostrophe + s to singular nouns and indefinite pronouns.
Fred’s car, my brother’s hat, somebody’s book
b. Add apostrophe only to plural nouns which end with -s.
the girls’ clothes, the teachers’ offices
c. Add apostrophe + s to plural nouns which don’t end with -s.
the children’s breakfast, the men’s tools
F. Dashes and parentheses
Dashes and parentheses separate extra information from the rest of the sentence. They are often used for explanations, examples, and comments. Material between the dashes and parentheses is not grammatically part of the sentence.
Most people born in the US speak only one language—English.
This device is easy to use if you know how (see the owner’s manual).
G. Quotation marks
1. Quotation marks are used around the exact words of a speaker or writer:
My teacher often says, “English is easy. ”
Note the other punctuation in the sentence above: the comma before the beginning quotation mark and the period before the end quotation mark.
2. Quotation marks are used around the title of a TV program, song, short story, article, chapter, and essay:
“The Killers” is a famous short story by Ernest Hemingway.
Every night I watch “The Late Show. ”
H. An important note about punctuation:
The comma, the period, the semicolon, the colon, and the apostrophe are never placed at the beginning of a line.
not correct:
* Billy, Fred, and George hoped to finish school
, get good jobs, and travel around the world.correct:
Billy, Fred, and George hoped to finish school,
get good jobs, and travel around the world.
Adverb Clauses
See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause. A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adverb clauses. Also see Adjective Clauses and Noun Clauses.
A. Adverb clauses show relationships such as time, cause and effect, contrast, and condition. (See Conditional Sentences for more information on this type of adverb clause.)
B. A sentence which contains one adverb clause and one independent clause is the result of combining two clauses which have one of the relationships above. You can combine two independent clauses to make one sentence which contains an adverb clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which have one of the relationships in A above:
Billy couldn’t swim.
He jumped off the pier. (contrast)2. Add a subordinating conjunction to the beginning of the clause you want to make dependent:
Although Billy couldn’t swim
He jumped off the pier.3. Place the two clauses next to each other. Usually, the order of the clauses is not important. When the adverb clause precedes the independent clause, the two clauses are usually separated by a comma:
Although Billy couldn’t swim, he jumped off the pier.When the independent clause precedes the adverb clause, there is usually no comma:
Billy jumped off the pier although he couldn’t swim.
C. The subordinators in adverb clauses are called subordinating conjunctions. They cannot be omitted. They cannot be subjects. Here are some of the subordinating conjunctions:
Time: after, before, when, while, as, by the time, whenever, since, until, as soon as, once, as long as
Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as, as long as, inasmuch as, so (that), in order that
Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while
Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that), provided (that), in case, in the event (that). See Conditional Sentences.
D. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined) and one independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:
After he took lessons, George could swim well.
George could swim well after he took lessons.
Because he couldn’t swim, Billy drowned.
Billy drowned because he couldn’t swim.
Although he isn’t interested in food, Fred works as a cook.
Fred works as a cook although he isn’t interested in food.
If you want to write well, you must practice.
You must practice if you want to write well.
Adjective Clauses
See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause. A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adjective clauses. Also see Adverb Clauses and Noun Clauses.
A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify nouns.
The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)
It’s a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)
The car that she is driving is not hers.
(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. It’s a clause because it has a subject (she) and a predicate (is driving); it’s an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.)
Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns they modify.
B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses to make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:
The book is on the table. + I like the book.
The man is here. + The man wants the book.2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to make dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.
The book is on the table. + I like which
The man is here. + who wants the book3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause is now an adjective clause.
The book is on the table. + which I like
The man is here. + who wants the book4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):
The book which I like is on the table.
The man who wants the book is here.
C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.
1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.
These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.
WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in academic writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.
WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject of a verb.
WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition.
THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a preposition; whom, which, and whose are the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.
WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction Symbols Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject or part of an object of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot be omitted. Here are examples with whose:
The man is happy. + I found the man’s wallet. =
The man whose wallet I found is happy.
The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =
The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted. Here is an example with when:
I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=
I will never forget the day when I graduated.The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
I will never forget the day on which I graduated.
I will never forget the day that I graduated.
I will never forget the day I graduated.WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted but a preposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:
The building is new. + He works in the building. =
The building where he works is new.The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
The building in which he works is new.
The building which he works in is new.
The building that he works in is new.
The building he works in is new.
D. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.
1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective clauses above are restrictive. Here is another example:
People who can’t swim should not jump into the ocean.2. A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives additional information about the noun it modifies but is not necessary to identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause does not change. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. The relative pronoun that cannot be used in nonrestrictive adjective clauses. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from a nonrestrictive clause. Here is an example:
Billy, who couldn’t swim, should not have jumped into the ocean.
E. Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.
1. RP + BE = 0
People who are living in glass houses should not throw stones. (clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Mary applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. (clause)
Mary applied for a job advertised in the paper. (phrase)2. RP + OTHER VERB (not BE) = OTHER VERB + ing
People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.(clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Students who sit in the front row usually participate more. (clause)
Students sitting in the front row usually participate more. (phrase)
Noun Clauses
See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause. A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about noun clauses. Also see Adjective Clauses and Adverb Clauses.
A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:
A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:
What Billy did shocked his friends.A noun clause can be an object of a verb:
Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.A noun clause can be a subject complement:
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.A noun clause can be an object of a preposition:
Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement:
Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.
B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and using it in one of the ways listed above. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on the type of clause you are changing to a noun clause:
To change a statement to a noun clause use that:
I know + Billy made a mistake =
I know that Billy made a mistake.To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:
George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? =
George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:
I don’t know + Where is George? =
I don’t know where George is.C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the noun clause markers:
that
if, whether
Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why
Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever
D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:
correct:
Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.correct:
Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim.correct:
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.correct:
Billy’s mistake was he refused to take lessons.correct:
That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.not correct:
* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.
E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a question:
not correct:
* Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it)correct:
Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is)not correct:
* Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go)correct:
Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went)
F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun clause is:
future if its action/state is later
He thinks that the exam next week will be hard.
He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard.
present if its action/state is at the same time
He thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now.
past if its action/state is earlier
He thinks that George took the exam yesterday.When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun clause is:
was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is laterpast perfect if its action/state is earlier
He thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard.
He thought that the exam the following week would be hard.
past if its action/state is at the same time
He thought that Mary was taking the exam then.
He thought that George had taken the exam the day before.If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written the sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past.
The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday.If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer is writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple present tense can be used even if the main verb is past.
We learned that English is not easy.
The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.
G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined) and one independent clause:
Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:
That George learned how to swim is a miracle.
Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain.
What Mary said confused her parents.
However you learn to spell is OK with me.Noun clauses as objects of verbs:
We didn’t know that Billy would jump.
We didn’t know Billy would jump.
Can you tell me if Fred is here?
I don’t know where he is.
George eats whatever is on his plate.Noun clauses as subject complements:
The truth is that Billy was not very smart.
The truth is Billy was not very smart.
The question is whether other boys will try the same thing.
The winner will be whoever runs fastest.Noun clauses as objects of prepositions:
Billy didn’t listen to what Mary said.
He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.Noun clauses as adjective complements:
He is happy that he is learning English.
We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.
Conditional Sentences
Because conditional sentences are quite complex in both form and meaning, they are a problem for most learners of English. If you have a good understanding of the English tense system and of the modal auxiliaries, you will find it easier to understand and use conditional sentences. (The sentence you just read is a predictive conditional sentence.) All conditional sentences contain a dependent clause and an independent clause. The dependent clause usually begins with if; it expresses a condition. The independent clause expresses a result of the condition. The if-clause is usually first, but the order of the clauses is usually not important. Thus, these two sentences have basically the same meaning:If she goes to the store, she will buy ice cream.
She will buy ice cream if she goes to the store.You have probably noticed that different teachers, textbooks, and Web sites sometimes explain the same thing in different ways. This seems to be especially true of conditional sentences. However, two different explanations can both be correct, especially if the difference is due to the fact that complicated material has been organized in different ways. This is often true of explanations of conditionals that you find in your textbooks. Here conditional sentences are divided into three types based on their meanings: real, predictive, and imaginative conditional sentences.
Also see The Sentence, Modal Auxiliaries, Verbs A-L, Verbs M-Z, Tenses, and Adverb Clauses.
A. Real conditional sentences can express generalizations and inferences.
1. Generalizations include facts that are always true and never change, and they include present or past habitual activities that are or were usually true.
Real conditionals expressing generalizations usually have the same tense (usually simple present or simple past) in both clauses. However, if the simple present tense is used in the if-clause, will + verb can be used in the main clause without changing the meaning.
Examples of real conditional sentences expressing facts:
If water boils, it turns to steam.
If water boils, it will turn to steam.Examples of real conditional sentences expressing habitual activities:
If he eats breakfast, he feels better all day.
If he eats breakfast, he will feel better all day.
If he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.These generalizations can also be expressed by using when or whenever instead of if:
When water boils, it turns to steam.
When he eats breakfast, he feels better all day.
When he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.2. Inferences are often expressed in real conditional sentences.
Real conditionals expressing inferences usually have parallel verb phrases in both clauses. However, if a modal which explicitly expresses an inference (must or should, for example) is used in the main clause, parallel verb phrases are not used.
Examples of real conditional sentences expressing inferences:
If today is Wednesday, it is George’s birthday.
If I can do it, anyone can do it.
if it is raining, the streets are getting wet.
If he was at school, he saw the accident.
If today is Wednesday, it must be George’s birthday.
If I can do it, anyone must be able to do it.
if it is raining, the streets must be getting wet.
If he was at school, he must have seen the accident.
B. Predictive conditional sentences can express predictions and plans.
1. Predictive conditional sentences usually contain simple present tense in the if-clause and will or be going to in the result clause. However, a weaker modal of prediction (may or should, for example) can be used in the result clause to express less certainty.
2. Examples of predictive conditional sentences:
If the exam is hard, many students are going to fail.
If Mary does well on the final exam, she will get an A in the class.
If George does well on the final exam, he may get an A in the class.
If Fred studies, he should pass the exam.
C. Imaginative conditional sentences are the most difficult for many learners of English because of the unusual relationship between form (the tenses used) and meaning.
In this type of conditional sentence, past tense refers to present or future time; past perfect tense refers to past time. Another problem for many learners of English is that were (not was) is used with singular subjects. Be is the only English verb with two past tense forms, but only one of them (were) is used in imaginative conditional sentences.
Imaginative conditional sentences can express hypothetical or contrary-to-fact events or states.
1. Hypothetical events or states are unlikely but possible in the present or future.
Imaginative conditional sentences expressing hypothetical events or states have a past tense verb in the if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause.
Examples of hypothetical conditional sentences (present and/or future time):
If George had enough money, he would buy a new car.
If I won the lottery, I would buy you a present.
If she knew the answer, she would tell us.(George probably does not have enough money; I probably will not win the lottery; she probably does not know the answer.)
2. Contrary-to-fact events or states are either impossible in the present time or did not happen in the past.
Imaginative conditional sentences expressing present contrary-to-fact events or states have a past verb in the if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause. Some examples:
If I were you, I would not do that.
If she studied for exams, she would get better grades.
If it were raining, the streets would be wet.
(I am not you; she doesn’t study for exams; it isn’t raining.)Imaginative conditional sentences expressing past contrary-to-fact events or states have a past perfect verb in the if-clause and would + have + verb (or might or could + have + verb) in the result clause. Some examples:
If George had had enough money, he would have bought a new car.
If I had won the lottery, I would have bought you a present.
If she had known the answer, she would have told us.
(George did not have enough money; I did not win the lottery; she did not know the answer.)
Passive Sentences
Passive voice verbs are used in writing much more often than in speech, and they are used in some types of writing much more often than in others. Passives are used more in journalism (newspapers, magazines) than in fiction (novels, stories), but most journalists and fiction writers use far more active than passive sentences. However, passives are very common in all types of scientific and technical writing. Scientific articles often contain more passive than active sentences. You should not use passive voice verbs unless you have a good reason.A. Relationship between active and passive:
1. The object of the active verb is the subject of the passive verb (“English” in the example sentences below). Therefore, verbs which cannot be followed by objects (intransitive verbs) cannot be used in passive voice.
These are some common intransitive verbs: appear, arrive, come, cry, die, go, happen, occur, rain, sleep, stay, walk. These verbs cannot be used in passive voice.
2. The passive verb always contains a form of the auxiliary verb be. The form of be in the passive verb phrase corresponds to the form of the main verb in the active verb phrase (see the underlined words in the example sentences below). That is, if the active main verb is simple present tense, then a simple present tense form of be is used in the passive verb phrase; if the active main verb is -ING, then the -ING form of be is used in the passive verb phrase; and so on.
3. The main verb in a passive predicate verb phrase is always the participle form of the verb.
4. Some examples of active and passive sentences:
ACTIVE: They speak English.
PASSIVE: English is spoken.
ACTIVE: They spoke English.
PASSIVE: English was spoken.
ACTIVE: They will speak English.
PASSIVE: English will be spoken.
ACTIVE: They are going to speak English.
PASSIVE: English is going to be spoken.
ACTIVE: They are speaking English.
PASSIVE: English is being spoken.
ACTIVE: They were speaking English.
PASSIVE: English was being spoken.
ACTIVE: They have spoken English.
PASSIVE: English has been spoken.
ACTIVE: They had spoken English.
PASSIVE: English had been spoken.
ACTIVE: They will have spoken English.
PASSIVE: English will have been spoken.
5. Perfect progressive verb forms are generally used in active voice only. That is, these are good English sentences:
ACTIVE: They have been speaking English.
ACTIVE: They had been speaking English.
ACTIVE: They will have been speaking English.
But sentences like these are rarely used:
PASSIVE: English has been being spoken.
PASSIVE: English had been being spoken.
PASSIVE: English will have been being spoken.
B. Most passive sentences do not contain an agent; all active sentences contain an agent.
1. An agent is the subject of the active verb. In the example sentences above, the agent is “they” in all the active sentences; the passive sentences do not contain an agent.
2. When a passive sentence contains an agent, it is in a prepositional phrase following the verb. For example:
English is spoken by them.
In the following sentences, the noun “teachers” is the agent in both sentences. “Teachers” is also the subject of the active verb, but “exams” is the subject of the passive verb.
ACTIVE: Teachers prepare exams.
PASSIVE: Exams are prepared by teachers.
C. You should not use passive voice unless you have a good reason.
Here are some good reasons for using passive voice:
1. Passive voice is often used when the agent (the doer of an action; the subject of an active verb) is obvious, unknown, or unnecessary:
Oranges are grown in California.
Toyotas are made in Japan.
Her purse was stolen.
2. Passive voice is often used when the agent is known, but the speaker/writer doesn’t want to mention it:
She was given bad advice.
A mistake has been made.
3. Passive voice is often used when the agent is very general such as people or somebody.
English is spoken here.
The door should be locked.
4. Passive voice is often used when the speaker/writer wants to emphasize a result:
Several thousand people were killed by the earthquake.
5. Passive voice is often used when the speaker/writer wants to keep the same subject for two or more verbs but this would not be possible if both verbs were the same voice (active or passive).
For example, in a conversation about George, a speaker would probably use sentence a below rather than sentence b (both sentences are correct).
a. George had several interviews before he was hired by a software company.
b. George had several interviews before a software company hired him.
Nouns and Articles
Nouns are words that are names of people, places, things, concepts,…. In sentences, nouns are subjects of verbs, objects of verbs, subject complements, and objects of prepositions. Nouns are often preceded by determiners (see det in Correction Symbols Two). The articles (a, an, the) are important determiners. Note the noun teacher in the following sentences:The teacher is talking to the class. (subject of verb)
The students are watching the teacher. (object of verb)
John is a teacher. (subject complement)
George gave his essay to the teacher. (object of preposition)
A. There are two types of nouns.
1. Proper nouns include names of particular people, countries, states, cities, schools, rivers, lakes, mountains, oceans, languages, months, days,…. They always begin with capital letters. Here are some examples:
John Fleming
English
De Anza College
Cupertino
California
United States
Tuesday
July2. All others are common nouns. Here are some examples:
man
language
school
city
state
country
day
month
B. There are two types of common nouns.
1. Count nouns have plural forms. Most count nouns have both singular and plural forms, but a few have plural forms only:
people
police
clothes2. Noncount nouns have singular forms only:
advice
furniture
information3. Note that many noncount nouns are often used as count nouns. This is especially true of nouns that refer to things we eat and drink:
coffee
food
fruit
meatWhen a noncount noun is used as a plural count noun, it usually means one of the following:
a. Containers
two coffees, for example, can mean two cups of coffee
b. Kinds
several fruits, for example, can mean several kinds of fruit4. Here are some common noncount nouns:
FOOD, DRINKS:
beer, bread, butter, cereal, cheese, coffee, corn, cream, flour, food, fruit, honey, ice cream, juice, margarine, meat, milk, pasta, pepper, rice, salt, spaghetti, sugar, tea, vinegar, water, wheat
ABSTRACT NOUNS, EMOTIONS:
advice, beauty, behavior, crime, equality, experience, freedom, fun, happiness, hate, health, help, homework, honesty, ignorance, information, insanity, insurance, love, news, patience, peace, permission, progress, unemployment, work
LANGUAGES, FIELDS OF STUDY:
accounting, biology, Chinese, engineering, English, geography, history, Indonesian, linguistics, literature, mathematics, music, philosophy, physics, psychology, Russian, Spanish, Turkish
CATEGORIES:
baggage, cloth, clothing, equipment, food, fruit, furniture, homework, jewelry, junk, luggage, machinery, mail, money, stuff, transportation, trash
WEATHER, NATURAL PHENOMENA:
cold, darkness, electricity, fire, fog, hail, heat, humidity, ice, lightning, rain, sleet, snow, sunshine, thunder, weather, wind
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, GASES, POWDERS, GRAINS, CLOTH:
air, beer, blood, cereal, chalk, coal, copper, corn, cotton, cream, detergent, dust, flour, fog, gasoline, glass, honey, hydrogen, ice, iron, juice, leather, lotion, milk, nylon, oil, oxygen, pepper, pollution , polyester, rice, rope, salt, shampoo, silk, smog, smoke, soap, steam, string, sugar, thread, vinegar, water, wheat, wine, wood, wool
C. Nouns can have three kinds of meaning.
1. Definite. A noun is definite when the writer and reader share information about the noun. Nouns can be definite for the following reasons:
The noun has been mentioned before:
An old man lived in a big house. The old man had three grandchildren who came to the big house every Saturday morning.A noun can be followed by a phrase or clause that makes it definite:
the president of De Anza College
the book that I bought yesterdayThe noun refers to something unique:
the sun
the moonThe noun is definite because of its setting. In a classroom, for example, everyone will understand the same meaning for these nouns:
the blackboard
the teacher
the clockNouns can be definite for members of groups. A group of classmates will understand the same meaning for the following nouns:
the teacher
the exam
the textbookThe noun phrase includes a superlative or ordinal number:
the slowest writer
the most difficult assignment
the first page2. Indefinite. A noun is indefinite when the writer and reader don’t share information about the noun.
3. Generic. A noun is generic when it represents a whole class (not an individual or individuals). Generic meaning can be expressed in different ways (in D. below, the three sentences in which the noun bicycle is used generically all have the same meaning).
D. Uses of a, an, the, and no article
1. The definite article the is used with:
A few proper nouns (names of canals, deserts, forests, oceans, rivers, seas; plural names of islands, lakes, and mountains; a few countries;… )
The Mississippi River is the longest in the United States.Singular or plural count nouns (definite)
The old man in the big house loved to see the children who came to visit.Noncount nouns (definite)
The coffee that I had this morning was not very good.Singular count nouns (generic)
The bicycle is excellent transportation.2. The indefinite articles a and an are used with:
Singular count nouns (indefinite)
A man is sitting on the bench at the bus stop.Singular count nouns (generic)
A bicycle is excellent transportation.3. No Article (and no other determiner) is used with:
Most proper nouns (definite)
George and Fred both speak English.Plural count nouns (generic)
Bicycles are excellent transportation.Noncount nouns (generic)
Coffee is served in nearly all restaurants.Plural count nouns (indefinite)
I talk to students every day.Noncount nouns (indefinite)
I need information.
The Paragraph
Also see ¶, coh, dev, and ¶u in Correction Symbols One and Correction Symbols Two. A paragraph is a group of related sentences. A good paragraph is unified, coherent, and well-developed. Below are examples of awful, bad, fair, and good paragraphs.A. Paragraph A below is awful. It has three serious problems: It lacks unity, coherence, and development. (It also has some other problems, but we won’t worry about those here.)
Paragraph A:
Shoes should be good-looking. They should also be durable. A jacket should be good-looking and durable too. The most important quality of shoes is comfort. Shoes should be inexpensive too.B. Paragraph B below is a little better than paragraph A, but it is still a bad paragraph. It is unified (a topic sentence has been added; the sentence about a jacket has been deleted), but it still lacks coherence and development.
Paragraph B:
An ideal pair of shoes would have four qualities. They would be good-looking. They would be durable. Most important, they would be comfortable. They would not be expensive.C. Paragraph C below is also bad, but it is much better than paragraphs A and B. It is unified and coherent (the sentences have been arranged in a logical order; transitions have been added) but it still lacks development.
Paragraph C:
An ideal pair of shoes would have four qualities. First, they would be good-looking. Second, they would be durable. Third, they would not be expensive. Fourth, and most important, they would be comfortable.D. Paragraph D below is a good paragraph. It is unified (it has a topic sentence; all sentences are related to one idea); it is coherent (the sentences are arranged in a logical order; transitions have been used); and it is well-developed (details and a conclusion have been added).
Paragraph D:
An ideal pair of men’s shoes would have four qualities. First, they would be good-looking. I don’t like shoes with pointed toes, high heels, or a lot of unnecessary decoration. I like a plain brown or black shoe made of good leather. Second, they would be durable. I don’t want a pair of shoes that will wear out in a few months. I expect a good pair of shoes to last a few years. When I buy shoes, I look for good materials (leather uppers, hard rubber soles and heels) and good workmanship. Third, they would not be expensive. Of course, I expect to pay for quality, but I don’t think I should need to get a bank loan to buy shoes. I think the kind of shoes I like should cost around $120. Fourth, and most important, they would be comfortable. I spend a lot of time on my feet. I’m a teacher, and I’m usually standing or pacing around when I’m in the classroom. I also like to walk and I get most of my regular exercise by walking. An uncomfortable pair of shoes would make my life miserable. If I could find a pair of shoes with these four qualities, I might buy two or three pairs. Then I wouldn’t have to buy shoes again for a long time.
Correction Symbols One
Notes from your teacher When your teacher returns a writing assignment to you, you will probably see some of the correction symbols listed below on it. Before you rewrite your paper, you need to know what these symbols mean.You need to find each symbol that your teacher has written on your paper in the list below. Then you need to read the information that follows the symbol. If there is something you don’t understand after you have done this, ask for help from your tutor, your English-speaking friend, or your teacher.
This page (Correction Symbols One) contains the symbols that do not begin with a letter. Those which begin with a letter are on another page (Correction Symbols Two).
If you print this page, a few of the correction symbols may not print correctly. You should compare the printed copy with what you see on your computer screen.
Example sentences which are not correct are preceded by an asterisk (*).
#
Number: In most academic but non-technical writing, words are used for numbers that can be expressed in one or two words (for example, twenty-five), but numerals are used for other numbers (for example, 17,213,458).
1wd
One Word: These “words” should be written as one word.
2wds
Two Words: This “word” should be written as two words.
¶
Paragraph: You should begin a new paragraph here. See The Paragraph. A paragraph is a group of related sentences. Here are two basic rules about the appearance of a paragraph: ¶1 The first line of every paragraph should be indented about one inch (or five spaces). ¶2 When a sentence ends in the middle of a line, the next sentence should begin on the same line. Leave empty space at the end of a line only when the next sentence begins a new paragraph.
¶quo
Paragraph/Quotation: When writing quoted speech, begin a new paragraph each time the speaker changes.
¶u
Paragraph Unity: Every sentence in a paragraph should be related to one main idea. In academic writing, the main idea is usually expressed in a topic sentence (main idea sentence). Sometimes, the main idea is implied but not actually stated in a topic sentence. See The Paragraph. ¶u1 This paragraph needs a topic sentence. A topic sentence is usually placed at or near the beginning of the paragraph. ¶u2 This paragraph contains information that is not related to the main idea. Information that is not related to the main idea should be deleted or placed in a different paragraph.
^
Omission: Something is missing here. You need to add the missing word(s).
( )
Correct but Unnecessary: Words in parentheses are correct but are not necessary. You should delete them unless you have a good reason (for example, emphasis) for including them.
/ /
Parallelism: Use parallel structures (similar grammatical forms: words, phrases, clauses, sentences) to express similar ideas. Use parallel structures on both sides of a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but,… ). Also see Coordinating Conjunction below, Coherence below, and Parallel Structures.
Not correct:
* He loves eating tasty food, to watch movies, and he loves to ride his bicycle.
Correct:
He loves eating tasty food, watching movies, and riding his bicycle.
He loves to eat tasty food, watch movies, and ride his bicycle.
He loves eating tasty food, he loves watching movies, and he loves riding his bicycle.
Correction Symbols Two
Notes from your teacher When your teacher returns a writing assignment to you, you will probably see some of the correction symbols listed below on it. Before you rewrite your paper, you need to know what these symbols mean.You need to find each symbol that your teacher has written on your paper in the list below. Then you need to read the information that follows the symbol. If there is something you don’t understand after you have done this, ask for help from your tutor, your English-speaking friend, or your teacher.
This page (Correction Symbols Two) contains the symbols which begin with a letter and they are listed in alphabetical order. Those which do not begin with a letter are on another page (Correction Symbols One).
If you print this page, a few of the correction symbols may not print correctly. You should compare the printed copy with what you see on your computer screen.
Example sentences which are not correct are preceded by an asterisk (*).
ab
Abbreviation: Be careful about using abbreviations.
ab1 Don’t use abbreviations unless they are very common (for example: USA, TV, DVD).
ab2 When you use a period after the letters in an abbreviation, be sure to put a period after each letter.
Not correct:
* I came to the U.S.A last year.
Correct:
I came to the U.S.A. last year.
I came to the USA last year.
ab3 Don’t use & (ampersand) unless you’re copying a name or title.
Not correct:
* I bought a book & a pen.
Correct:
I bought a book and a pen.
My friend works for AT&T. (AT&T is the name of a company.)
ab4 Don’t use etc. You should not expect your reader to fill in information that you are too lazy to provide (etc. is the abbreviation for the Latin term et cetera).
act
Active: This verb should be active, not passive. See Passive Sentences.
agrp
Agreement (Pronoun-Antecedent): All pronouns must agree in number (singular, plural) with their antecedents. 3rd person singular pronouns (he, she, it) must also agree in gender (male, female, neuter) with their antecedents. See Pronoun below; also see Relative Pronouns in Relative Clauses.
agrp1 Don’t use a plural pronoun for a singular antecedent:
Not correct:
* Each student has their book.
Correct:
Each student has his/her book.
Each student has her book.
All students have their books.
Each student has his book.
agrp2 Don’t use a singular pronoun for a plural antecedent:
Not correct:
* The children want to eat because she is hungry.
Correct:
The children want to eat because they are hungry.
The child wants to eat because she is hungry.
agrp3 Don’t use a male pronoun for a female antecedent:
Not correct:
* The waitress lost his pencil.
Correct:
The waitress lost her pencil.
agrp4 Don’t use a female pronoun for a male antecedent:
Not correct:
* The waiter lost her pencil.
Correct:
The waiter lost his pencil.
agrp5 Don’t use a human pronoun for a nonhuman antecedent:
Not correct:
* The car whom I want is green.
Correct:
The car which I want is green.
Exceptions: Female pronouns (she, her,…) are often used for boats and ships; Female pronouns (she, her,…), male pronouns (he, his,…), and neuter pronouns (it, its,…) can be used for animals.
agrp6 Don’t use a nonhuman pronoun for a human antecedent:
Not correct:
* The woman which you saw was my neighbor.
Correct:
The woman whom you saw was my neighbor.
agrsv
Agreement (Subject-Verb): Present tense forms of all verbs and the past tense forms of be (was, were) must agree in number (singular, plural) with their subjects.
agrsv1 Don’t use a singular verb with a plural subject:
Not correct:
* They speaks English.
Correct:
They speak English.
agrsv2 Don’t use a plural verb with a singular subject:
Not correct:
* She speak English.
Correct:
She speaks English.
agrsv3 Don’t forget that the 1st person singular subject (I) and the 2nd person singular subject (you) take the same present tense verb form as a plural subject (unless the verb is be):
Not correct:
* I speaks English.
* You speaks English.
Correct:
I speak English.
You speak English.
agrsv4 Don’t forget that the verb be is very different from all other English verbs: be has three present tense forms (I am, he/she/it is, we/you/they are); all other verbs have two (BASE, +S); be has two past tense forms (I/he/she/it was, we/you/they were); all others have one (PAST). See Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Auxiliaries.
amb
Ambiguous: This (These) word(s) has (have) two (or more) different meanings and it is not clear which meaning you have in mind. You need to make your meaning clear.
Flying airplanes can be dangerous.
The sentence above has two possible meanings:
Airplanes that are flying can be dangerous.
It can be dangerous to fly airplanes.
aux
Auxiliary: An auxiliary is missing here. See Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Auxiliaries.
awk
Awkward: This sentence is difficult to understand. There are many possible reasons for an awkward sentence: awk1 You may have used inappropriate words. awk2 You may have incorrectly translated from your language to English. awk3 You may have tried to put too much into one sentence. Try rewriting a long awkward sentence as two or three shorter sentences. awk4 You may have used incorrect word order. awk5 You may have used ambiguous language. Words are ambiguous if they can be understood in two or more different ways. See Ambiguous above. awk6 You may have made so many mistakes in one sentence that your meaning is not clear. awk7 This material does not seem to be connected to the rest of the sentence.
awk!
Very Awkward: This sentence is impossible to understand. See Awkward above. Try explaining what you want to say to a native-speaker of English (your tutor, a friend, your teacher). Perhaps s/he can help you express your idea more clearly.
awkcomp
Awkward Comparison: You have compared two things that are so different that they cannot be compared.
Not correct:
* California drivers are better than New York.
Correct:
California drivers are better than New York drivers.
cap
Capital Letter: This (These) letter(s) must be capitalized. Capital letters look like this: A, B, C, D, E,… ; lower case letters look like this: a, b, c, d, e,… . Here are some rules about capitalization:
Every sentence begins with a capital letter. The pronoun I is always a capital letter. Proper nouns begin with capital letters. Proper nouns include the names of specific persons, places, and things; nationalities and languages; religions and their members; days and months; organizations and institutions;.... See Nouns and Articles. Titles (Mr., Ms., Dr.,...) that precede names begin with capital letters. The first and last words and all content words (nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives) in titles of books, movies, student compositions, and so on must begin with capital letters.
cbut
Correct, but...: This sentence is grammatically correct, but the meaning is not appropriate. Perhaps you don’t understand what you have said.
cc
Coordinating Conjunction: Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect parallel structures (words, phrases, clauses). The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet. See Parallelism below and Parallel Structures.
coh
Coherence: The relationships between sentences (and between paragraphs) should be clear and natural. The reader should be able to follow the writer’s thought without difficulty. See The Paragraph. To achieve coherence, the writer should:
coh1 Arrange information in a clear logical order. There are many different clear logical arrangements. Here are a few: Time (chronological, reverse chronological). Time order is especially important in narration and a description of a process. Space (for example, left to right, top to bottom, near to far, east to west,...). A spatial arrangement is especially important in physical descriptions. Inductive (particular to general). Deductive (general to particular). Importance (least to most, most to least).
coh2 Use appropriate transitional devices. For example: Pronouns (see below) which refer to previously mentioned nouns. Repetition (see below) of previously mentioned words/ideas. Parallel structures. See Parallelism below and Parallel Structures. Transitional words and phrases. See Transitions below.
contr
Contraction: You have used a contraction incorrectly. You should use the full form instead of a contraction.
contr1 Contractions are not generally used in formal academic writing. However, usage varies. The most common contractions are often acceptable. If you are in doubt, use the full form rather than a contraction.
contr2 Subject pronoun + auxiliary contractions are never used as the last word in a sentence or clause. Examples: I’m, I’ve, he’s, she’s, you’re, you’ve, they’re, they’ve, she’ll, he’d,…. See Pronoun below and Auxiliary Verbs.
Are you studying English?
Not correct:
* Yes, I’m.
Correct:
Yes, I am.
cs
Comma Splice: You have incorrectly separated two independent clauses with a comma. This is one type of run-on sentence (see below).
Not correct:
* I wrote the composition, I got a bad grade.
Correct:
I wrote the composition, but I got a bad grade.
I wrote the composition. I got a bad grade.
I wrote the composition; I got a bad grade.
dang
Dangling Modifier: A modifying phrase must refer to the noun or pronoun closest to it. Usually the modifier precedes the noun or pronoun; sometimes it follows it.
Not correct:
* Driving to school, the freeway was crowded.
Driving to school is a dangling modifier because the freeway cannot drive. There are two ways to correct dangling modifiers:
dang1 Revise the sentence to make the modifier clearly refer to the correct word:
Correct:
Driving to school this morning, I thought the freeway was unusually crowded.
dang2 Change the modifying phrase to a subordinate clause:
Correct:
When I was driving to school this morning, the freeway was unusually crowded.
det
Determiner: A determiner is needed here. Determiners include articles (a, an, the), demonstratives (this, that, these, those), numbers (one, two, three,...), quantity terms (many, several, some,...), possessive adjectives (my, your, her,...), possessive nouns (John’s, the teacher’s,...). Singular count nouns almost always require determiners; other nouns (noncount, plural count) often require determiners. See Nouns and Articles.
details
Details: You need to provide your reader with more information (details). Details include colors, shapes, sizes, numbers, statistics, names, titles, facts, examples, quotations, anecdotes,…. Also see Development below and The Paragraph.
dev
Development: Develop your ideas adequately. Supply enough information so that your reader will understand what you want to say. See Details above and The Paragraph.
dp
Delete Punctuation: Incorrect punctuation should be deleted. See Punctuation.
Not correct:
* The book, that I want is very expensive.
Correct:
The book that I want is very expensive.
Very few punctuation marks can be placed at the beginning of a line. Commas, periods, question marks, exclamation points, colons, and semicolons are never placed at the beginning of a line.
Not correct:
* Billy, Fred, and George hoped to finish school
, get good jobs, and travel around the world.
Correct:
Billy, Fred, and George hoped to finish school,
get good jobs, and travel around the world.
dw
Deadwood: Eliminate deadwood (incorrect or unnecessary words). dw1 This (These) word(s) is (are) not correct and must be deleted. dw2 This (These) word(s) is (are) not necessary and should be deleted.
eg?
For example?: You need to provide an example (or some examples) here (e.g. is the abbreviation for the Latin term exempli gratia).
frag
Fragment: This group of words is not a complete sentence, but you have punctuated it as if it were a complete sentence. See The Sentence. A group of words may be a fragment for several reasons:
frag1 The verb is missing.
Not correct:
* Billy dead.
Correct:
Billy is dead.
frag2 The verb phrase is incomplete.
Not correct:
* He trying to swim.
Correct:
He was trying to swim.
frag3 The subject is missing.
Not correct:
* Didn’t want to take lessons.
Correct:
He didn’t want to take lessons.
frag4 There is a subject but no predicate.
Not correct:
* His friends, who miss him very much.
Correct:
His friends, who miss him very much, are sad.
frag5 It is a subordinate clause; see Adverb Clauses, Noun Clauses, and/or Adjective Clauses. A subordinate clause is part of a sentence; it cannot be a sentence by itself. You need to either add it to the preceding or following sentence or add an independent clause to it.
Not correct:
* Because he is gone.
Correct:
His friends are sad because he is gone.
fs
Fused Sentence: You have incorrectly punctuated two (or more) independent clauses as one sentence. This is one type of run-on sentence (see below).
Not correct:
* He fixed the car it runs well now.
Correct:
He fixed the car, and it runs well now.
He fixed the car. It runs well now.
He fixed the car; it runs well now.
ill
Illegible: This is very difficult (or impossible) to read because your handwriting (or typing or printing) is illegible.
inccomp
Incomplete Comparison: This group of words contains only part of a comparative form. See Wrong Form 3 & 4 below.
Not correct:
* Los Angeles is bigger.
* This book is important than that one.
inccomp1 You must either complete the comparison:
Correct:
Los Angeles is bigger than San Francisco.
This book is more important than that one.
inccomp2 Or you must not use a comparative form:
Correct:
Los Angeles is big.
This book is important.
logic?
Not Logical: This sentence (These sentences) may be grammatically correct, but it doesn’t (they don’t) make sense.
logic?1 What you have said appears to be nonsense.
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
logic?2 You have said two (or more) things that seem to contradict each other: They cannot both (all) be true.
He bought a car last year. He has never owned a car.
marg
Margin: You should leave margins along the top, bottom, left, and right edges of your paper. One inch along the top, bottom, and right and one-and-one-half inches on the left are standard margins, but you should ask your teacher how wide the margins should be.
nc
Noncount Noun: This word is a noncount (or uncountable) noun. nc1 Noncount nouns are singular. nc2 The indefinite article (a, an) cannot be used with noncount nouns. nc3 Numbers (one, two, three,...), plural quantity expressions (many, few, several,...), and plural demonstratives (these, those) cannot be used with noncount nouns.
no ¶
No Paragraph: You should not begin a new paragraph here. This material should be part of the preceding paragraph.
no cap
No Capital: This (These) letter(s) should not be capitalized.
no pass
No Passive: This verb should be active, not passive. See Passive Sentences.
no subj
No Subject: This verb does not have a subject.
Not correct:
* After checked my son, the doctor left.
no subj1 Sometimes this error can be corrected just by adding a subject.
Correct:
After she checked my son, the doctor left.
no subj2 Sometimes this error can be corrected by using a different word form.
Correct:
After checking my son, the doctor left.
ns
Nonstandard: Your sentence may be correct and your meaning may be clear, but you have not used Standard American English.
ns1 You may have used a nonstandard word order. Move word(s) as indicated.
Nonstandard:
He had a white and black TV.
He was walking down and up the street.
Standard:
He had a black and white TV.
He was walking up and down the street.
ns2 You may have used British English vocabulary.
Nonstandard:
We took the lift to the top floor.
Standard:
We took the elevator to the top floor.
ns3 You may have used a word in a way that a native speaker of English would not use it.
Nonstandard:
She returned home to visit her parent.
Standard:
She returned home to visit her mother.
She returned home to visit her father.
She returned home to visit her parents.
ntwd
Not a word: This “word” is not an English word.
pass
Passive: This verb should be passive, not active. See Passive Sentences.
plagiarism
Plagiarism: This material at least appears to have been plagiarized. See your teacher.
If you have used the words or ideas of another person as if they were your own, you have committed plagiarism. Plagiarism is an extremely serious offense and writers who are guilty of it are subject to severe penalties.
When you use someone else’s words or paraphrase someone else’s ideas, you must indicate that you are quoting (by using quotation marks) or paraphrasing (for example, by saying something like “according to _____”) and you must identify the source of the quotation or paraphrased material (either in your text or in a footnote and bibliography). If you don’t, you are guilty of plagiarism.
See the following Web site for more information about plagiarism:
http://www.sjlibrary.org/services/literacy/info_comp/plagiarism.htm
pl
Plural: This word should be plural.
Here is one of the most common mistakes involving a plural:
Not correct:
* Only one of the student did not complete the assignment.
Correct:
Only one of the students did not complete the assignment.
The phrase one of the must be followed by a plural noun or pronoun.
prep
Preposition: There is a problem which involves a preposition here.
prep1 A preposition is necessary here. Here are some prepositions:
about, above, across, after, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, despite, down, during, for, from, in, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, over, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, until, up, upon, with, within, without
prep2 You have used the wrong preposition. Here are some common preposition mistakes:
Not correct:
* The houses are made by wood.
* George married with Shirley.
* Shirley is married with George.
* We discussed about the movie.
Correct:
The houses are made of wood.
George married Shirley.
Shirley is married to George.
We discussed the movie.
We talked about the movie.
pro
Pronoun: You should replace this (these) word(s) with a pronoun. These are the personal pronouns:
subject/ object/ possessives (adjectives/pronouns)/reflexive
I/me/my/mine/myself
you/you/your/yours/yourself
he/ him/ his/ his/ himself
she/her/her/hers/herself
it/it/its/___/itself
we/us/our/ours/ourselves
you/you/your/yours/yourselves
they/them/their/theirs/themselves
Also see Adjective Clauses for a list of relative pronouns.
Really?
Do you really mean this?: It is difficult to believe. Perhaps you have used the wrong words or perhaps you are exaggerating or perhaps you don’t understand what you have said.
ref
Pronoun Reference: It is not clear what this pronoun refers to. A pronoun should clearly refer to a nearby word or words. See Pronoun above.
Not correct:
* Patty sent a postcard to Katy when she was in Nevada.
(Who was in Nevada, Patty or Katy?)
Correct:
When Patty was in Nevada, she sent a postcard to Katy.
rep
Repetition: Don’t repeat (words, phrases, clauses, sentences, ideas) unless you have a good reason to do so (for example, emphasis or coherence). See Coherence above.
r-o
Run-On Sentence: You have incorrectly punctuated two or more independent clauses as one sentence.
You can correct a run-on sentence either by supplying appropriate punctuation and/or a conjunction or by changing one of the clauses to a subordinate clause. See The Sentence, Adverb Clauses, Noun Clauses, Adjective Clauses, Comma Splice above, Fused Sentence above, Parallel Structures, and Punctuation.
sing
Singular: This word should be singular.
sp
Spelling: This word is not spelled correctly. Consult your dictionary. If the word is a verb, see Verbs. If you cannot find the word, consult your tutor or English-speaking friend.
sp Br
British Spelling: There are some differences between British and American spelling. You should use the American spelling. Consult your dictionary.
title
Title: Here are some rules about titles: title1 A title is almost always a noun or noun phrase. title2 A title is almost never a clause. title3 A title never ends with a period. title4 A title must be centered on the top line. title5 There must be one empty line between the title and the first line of the first paragraph. title6 The first word, the last word, and all content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) in a title must begin with capital letters. title7 If you mention the title of a book, newspaper, magazine, movie, play, or musical work in your composition, you should underline it (or print it in italics). title8 Don’t underline the title of your own composition, and don’t print it in italics. title9 If you mention the title of a TV program, song, short story, article, chapter, or essay in your composition, you should put it in quotation marks (“___”). title10 Don’t put the title of your own composition in quotation marks.
tns
Tense: You’ve used an incorrect tense (present, past) and/or aspect (perfect, progressive) and/or modal. Be sure you are logical and consistent in your use of tense, aspect, and modals. See Auxiliary Verbs, Modal Auxiliaries, Verbs A-L, Verbs M-Z, and Tenses.
tr
Transition: A transitional word or phrase is needed here. Transitions are words or phrases that indicate relationships between sentences, clauses, ideas, paragraphs,.... Also see Coherence above. Here are some transitional words and phrases:
To indicate addition: moreover, further, furthermore, besides, likewise, also, again, in addition, equally important, next, first, second, third, in the first place, in the second place, finally, last,.... To indicate comparison: similarly, likewise, in the same way,.... To indicate contrast: however, still, nevertheless, even so, on the other hand, on the contrary, notwithstanding, for all that, in contrast, at the same time, otherwise, instead,.... To indicate place: here, beyond, nearby, opposite to, adjacent to, on the opposite side,.... To indicate purpose: to this end, for this purpose, with this object,.... To indicate result: hence, therefore, accordingly, consequently, thus, thereupon, as a result, then,.... To indicate time: meanwhile, at length, soon, then, next, after a few days, in the meantime, later, now, in the past, afterward,.... To indicate summary, repetition, exemplification, intensification: to sum up, in brief, on the whole, in sum, in summary, in short, as I have said, that is, in other words, to be sure, as has been noted, for example, for instance, in fact, indeed, at last, to tell the truth, in any event, thus,....
vi
Verb-Intransitive: This verb is intransitive. Intransitive verbs cannot have objects. Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive voice. See Passive Sentences.
vt
Verb-Transitive: This verb is transitive. Transitive verbs must have objects.
wdiv
Word Division: When you reach the right margin and don’t have enough space for a complete word, you can divide the word with a hyphen (-) and put part of it on the next line. Here are some rules about word division: wdiv1 Divide a word only between syllables. If you are not sure about syllables, look up the word in a dictionary. wdiv2 Never divide a word that has only one syllable. wdiv3 Never divide a word so that one letter stands alone. Don’t divide words like this: a- lone, e- nough, eas- y. wdiv4 Never divide a word that has five or fewer letters. Don’t divide words like this: on- ly, of- ten, hap- py. wdiv5 Never divide a word so that a two-letter ending comes at the beginning of a line. Don’t divide words like this: want- ed, dress-es. wdiv6 When a word contains a double consonant, divide the word between the repeated consonants like this: sup- ply, con- nect, dif- ficulty. wdiv7 However, if a word ends with a double consonant and has an added ending, divide the word between the original word and the ending like this: spell- ing, miss- ing. wdiv8 Divide a hyphenated word only at a hyphen like this: father-in-law.
wf
Wrong Form: This word is an inappropriate form. You must change it to an appropriate form. Consult your dictionary.
wf1 Change this word to its noun form.
wf2 Change this (these) word(s) to a predicate verb form (that is, a form with tense or a modal or a modal-like auxiliary). See “What is a predicate verb?” in The Sentence. Also see Tenses, Auxiliary Verbs, Modal Auxiliaries, Verbs A-L, and Verbs M-Z.
wf3 Change this word to an adjective form. Adjectives have three forms:
wf3a Base:
Mary is a tall woman.
Fred has an expensive car.
wf3b Comparative:
George is taller than Mary.
Mary’s car was more expensive than Fred’s.
wf3c Superlative:
Fred is the tallest person in the group.
George’s car was the most expensive.
wf3d Many nouns can be used as adjectives. When a noun is used as an adjective, it is usually in its singular form:
Not correct:
* She has a three-years-old daughter.
Correct:
She has a three-year-old daughter.
wf4 Change this word to an adverb form. Adverbs have three forms:
wf4a Base:
Fred studied hard.
George participated actively.
wf4b Comparative:
George studied harder than Fred.
Mary participated more actively than George.
wf4c Superlative:
Mary studied the hardest.
Fred participated the most actively.
wf5 Change this word to its BASE verb form. See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z.
wf6 Change this word to its participle form. See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z.
wf6a The participle form may be part of a passive or perfect verb phrase:
The recipe was written by Fred. (passive)
Fred has written the recipe. (present perfect)
wf6b Or the participle form may be a modifier:
Many cooks never use written recipes.
wf7 Change this word to its infinitive form (TO + BASE). See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z.
wf8 Change this word to its ING form. See Verbs A-L and Verbs M-Z.
wf8a The ING form may be part of a progressive verb phrase:
George is sleeping.
wf8b Or the ING form may be a modifier:
Don’t disturb the sleeping man.
wf8cOr the ING form may be a noun (gerund).
Sleeping is his favorite pastime.
wf9 Change this pronoun to its subject form. See Pronoun above.
wf10 Change this pronoun to its object form. See Pronoun above.
wf11 Change this word to its possessive form. See Pronoun above for the possessive forms of the personal pronouns. See Adjective Clauses for the possessive relative pronoun. For the possessive forms of nouns and indefinite pronouns, follow these rules:
Add apostrophe + s to singular nouns and indefinite pronouns (George’s girlfriend, the teacher’s book, somebody’s bicycle). Add apostrophe only to plural nouns which end with –s (the boys’ dreams, the students’ compositions). Add apostrophe + s to plural nouns which don’t end with –s (the women’s movement, the children’s toys).
wordy
Wordy: You have used many more words than necessary to say what you want to say. Try to express the same content with fewer words.
ww
Wrong Word: This (These) word(s) is (are) not appropriate.
Rewritten and re-posted by
Yohannes Telaumbanua, S.Hum, M.Pd
English Department
State Polytechnics of Padang - West Sumatra - Indonesia
English Lecturer
Cell Phone : +6 081 374 375 436
E-mail : yohannes_telaumbanua@yahoo.com
Blog: yohannestelaumbanua.blogspot.com
FB Yohannes Telaumbanua
Designed by John Fleming
Faculty Directory
E-mail: flemingjohn@fdha.edu
On June 29, 2007, He retired from teaching after 40 years in the classroom (31 at De Anza). He will then continue to work part-time at De Anza as the Language Arts Division Scheduler through June 2009. After June 30, 2009, He will no longer be employed by De Anza College.
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