Pertemuan 5 Landasan Kurikulum Sosisologis dan Budaya Landasan sosiologis kurikulum adalah asumsi-asumsi yang berasal dari sosiologi yang dijadikan titik tolak dalam pengembangan kurikulum. Menegapa kurikulum harus berlandaskan kepada landasan sosiologis? Anak-anak berasal dari masyarakat, mendapat pendidikan baik informal, formal, maupun nonformal dalam lingkungan masyarakat, dan diarahkan agar mampu terjun dalam kehidupn bermasyarakat. Karena itu kehidupan masyarakat dan budaya dengan segala karakteristiknya harus menjadi landasan dan titik tolak dalam melaksanakan pendidikan. Oleh karena itu tujuan, isi, maupun proses pendidikan harus disesuaikan dengan kondisi, karakteristik kekayaan, dan perkembangan masyarakat tersebut. Sosiologi dalam pembahasannya mencakup secara garis besar akan perkembagan masyarakat dan budaya yang ada pada setiap ragam masyarakat yang da di Indonesia ini. Karena beraneka ragamnya budaya masyarakat yang ada di negri ini, sehingga kurikulum dalam perumusannya juga harus menyesuaikan pada budaya masyarakat yanga akan menjadi objek pendidikan dan penerima dari hasil pendidikan tersebut. Tidak bisa kita menggunakan kurikulum pendidikan untuk orang – orang pedalaman untuk diajarkan kepada orang-orang maju seperti di kota dan pendidikan luar wilyah tersebut yang lebih maju. Menurut Daud Yusuf, terdapat tiga sumber nilai yan ada dalam masyarakat untuk dikembangkan melalui proses pendidikan, yaitu : logika, setetika, dan etika. Logika adalah aspk pengetahuan dan penalaran, estetika berkaitan dengan aspek emosi atau perasaan, dan etika berkaitan dengan aspek nilai atau norma-norma yang ada dalam masyarakat. Ilmu pengetahuan dan kebudayaan adalah nilai-nilai yang bersumber pada logika. Sebagai akibat kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknoogi pada hakikatnya adalah hasil kebudayaan manusia, maka kehidupan manusia semakin luas, semakin meningkat sehingga tuntutan hidup pun semakin tinggi. Tyler, Taba, Tanner menyatakan bahwa tuntutan masyarakat dalah salah satu dasar dalam pengembangan kurikulum. Calhoun, light, dan Keller memaparkan tujuh fungsi social pensisikan, yaitu : 1) Mengejar keterampilan. 2) Mentransmisikan budaya. 3) Mendorong adaptasi lingkungan. 4) Membentuk kedisiplinan. 5) Mendorong bekerja kelompok. 6) Meningkatkan prilaku etik. 7) Memilih bakat dan member penghargaan prestasi. Daud Yusuf mendefiniskan kebudayaan sebagai segenap perwujudan dan keseluruhan hasil pikiran (logika), kemauan (etika), serta perasaan (estetika) manusia, dalam rangka perkembangan kepribadian manusia, perkembangan hubungan dengan manusia, manusia dengan alam, dan manusia dengan tuhannya yang maha esa. Ada factor yang mendasari bahwa kebudayaan merupakan bagian penting dalam pengembangan kurikulum dengan pertimbangan : 1) Individu lahir tidak berbudaya, baik hal kebiasaan, cita-cita, sikap, pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan sebagainya. Semua itu dapat diperoleh individu melalui interaksi dengan lingkungan budaya, keluarga, masyarakat sekitar, dan sekolah. Oleh karena itu sekolah mempunyai tugas khusus untuk memberikan pengalaman kepada para peserta didik dengan salah satu alat yang disebut kurikulum. 2) Kurikulum pada dasarnya harus mengokomodasikan aspek-aspek sosial dn budaya. Aspek sosiologis ialah yang berkenaan dengan kondisi sosial masyarakat yang sangt beragam, aspek budayanya yaitu kurikulum sebagai alat harus berimplikasi untuk mencapai tujuan pendidika yang bermuatan kebudayaan yang bersifat umum seperti : nilai-nilai, sikap-sikap, pengetahuan, dan kecakapan. SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Introduction In Module 2 we discussed how educational philosophy influences curriculum. In chapter 3, we saw how psychological perspectives impacts curriculum. In this Module we will examine two factors that influence a curriculum, namely, society and history. Specifically, we will attempt to answer the following questions: What are some of the demands of society with regards to curriculum? How have the needs of society been considered when developing curriculum? What are some of these needs? What historical events have influenced curriculum? Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society influences society through its curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and mould society and society in turn can impact the curriculum. There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting society. People today are vocal in expressing their views and are eager in seeing their opinions influence what is going on in school. With advancements in information and communication technology, people are talking and sharing views across the globe. They are seeing things happening in other school systems and would like to see some of these practices in their own schools. Society and Curriculum Education systems are closely tied to the institutional network of society. Thus, to understand how the content of schooling is shaped in any society, we must understand the relationship between education and other institutions in society. In other words, to understand what is taught, how it is taught and why it is taught, we need to look at the social forces that shape the curriculum. When designing curriculum, the following questions must be addressed: • To what extent should curriculum consider the world outside of school? • How do changes in society affect curriculum? Knowing the social foundations of curriculum is crucial in making decisions about what should be included in the curriculum and eventually what happens in the classroom. Schools exist within the context of society and influence culture which in turn shapes curriculum. The story ‘Curriculum of Forest School’ illustrates this point. A curriculum should be able to prepare students for the present and the future. In other words, a curriculum should address the wants and needs of learners by responding to social conditions locally, nationally and globally (McNeil, 1995). Students might ask, “Why do I need to study algebra? I do not intend to be a mathematician, computer scientist or engineer”. The utility of certain subjects in a curriculum may not be obvious to learners but teachers know that solving problems in algebra involve thinking skills which may not seem immediately relevant but will serve students indirectly in many professions and jobs later in their lives. According to Burks (1998) content is useful; • if it relates to the general body of knowledge needed by average human beings for conducting daily life (eg. reading, writing); • when it is related to the specific present or future situation of the student (eg. to be a journalist one needs good language skills) ; • if it develops thinking skills that probably increases the student’s success in other subject areas or in general life-decisions (eg. geography develops spatial thinking, art develops design skills); . • if it fulfils unavoidable requirements imposed by society as entry qualifications to certain vocational and professional programmes (eg. mathematics as requirement for technical jobs). `Few would disagree that the main function of education is to produce people with appropriate skills and knowledge to enable them to participate in the nation’s economy. (refer to the “Curriculum of Forest School”). The nature of schooling tends to reflect the nature of the society in which it is found (see Figure 4.1). For example, in the latter part of the 19th century, life in the United States was farm based and schools mirrored that lifestyle. The one-room school house was sufficient to meet the needs of an agrarian society. School started late and ended early in the day to allow time for students to help their families with farm work. School dismissed entirely during the summer so that children could help their parents the fields. Education was primarily didactic and learning was less book-based that it is today. Controlled largely by the teacher, education focused predominantly on basic skills. Teachers taught reading, writing and arithmetic to complement the skill students learn outside school. Since relatively few students progressed further than grade 6 or 7, the need for higher levels of education was minimal. By the beginning of the 20th century, the industrial revolution brought about drastic changes in the economy of many countries. More people moved to live in cities and working in factories. As a consequence new skills were needed in an industrial society. It was then that a great change took pace in education: the model of schools as a factory emerged. Students were taught the facts and skills they needed for industrial jobs, which they were likely to hold their entire lives. One-room schools were eventually replaced by large buildings. Students were sorted by grades and sat in straight rows, with a teacher at the front of the classroom in control of learning. The curriculum was compartmentalised and taught in separated bits and pieces – similar to the way that work is completed on an assembly line. Schools became efficient social institutions with the goal of turning out identical products. Figure 4.1 Changing Economy and Curriculum The appearance in the early 70s of the microprocessor and the explosive growth of networking and information technologies in the 80s and 90s witnessed the growth of the knowledge economy. Multimedia innovations and the growth of the internet have transformed our ability to access information. Despite all these changes, we are still educating students in factory-model schools. Many of the skills being taught currently are intended for jobs that either no longer exist or will be radically different by the time a student graduates. While being aware of the trend, educators are still unsure as to what the curriculum of the post-industrial-style classroom should be. Without doubt, in the post-industrial or information society, a new curriculum will be needed. It is envisioned that in the new model, education will be more personalised. In other words, education will be more differentiated to meet each student’s learning requirements. Students will be challenged with higher expectations of learning, and encouraged to think critically and creatively as they solve problems. They will spend more time using information technology and learn independently. The knowledge gained and skills acquired and attitudes nurtured will support them throughout life. In an agrarian or pre-industrial society, gender determined the role of individuals. Men worked at their various crafts or the farm. When boys were old enough they worked alongside their fathers. Women on the other hand maintained the house, caring for the children and training the girls. They also sewed, processed food (such as milling cereal) and produced clothing. Thus, men, women and often children worked for the betterment of the whole family and there was no individual bread-winner. Families were large and the extended family where parents lived with their adult children was common. The shift to the industrial economy brought about changes to the family institution. The extended family where parents lived with their adult children and their children rapidly declined, especially in urban areas. The family changed from an extended kinship family to a nuclear family which consisted of parents and their children only. Men moved from working in farms and cottage industries to work in offices or factories owned by corporations. Women also moved out of households to work in business, factories and offices, double income families gradually became common in many of today’s society. As parents worked away from home, children suffered. Conditions at work sometimes strained relationship between father and mother which leading to stress in children affecting their performance in school. To compound the problem, families were disrupted with divorce which saw an increase in single-parent families. Some adults remarried and formed new families from previous marriages posing many challenges of their own. As more and more families moved to live in urban areas, a different set of values were acquired. For example, in the early days, family, religion and school complemented each other as social institutions. A shift in values has resulted in changes in the relationship between family, education and religion. Social norms that guided the behaviour of earlier generations have relaxed and these social institutions (family, education and religion) are increasingly loosing their ability to guide the behaviours desired of today’s generation (Sowell, 2000). Children could now support their own families with their own earnings and as a result no longer needed the blessings of their elders. Since advancement on the job depended on the individual’s ability and not kinship ties, obedience was no longer a necessity (Roberts, 1990). Families have also been disrupted with stress, violence, crime and having to live in poor neighbourhoods. This had led to depletion of parents’ personal resources’ leaving them with very little energy to handle their children appropriately. Parents are distancing themselves from schools and are passing on the task of educating their children to the school. Schools are finding it difficult to cope with the job of educating the next generation without the active involvement of parents in the education of their children. Society is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas. Societies are becoming more multicultural, multiethnic and multi-religious and it is important that curriculum understands and reflect these changes. As stated by Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), “the complexion of our students is changing from one colour to various shades of colour and this adding of colour and cultural diversity will continue into the foreseeable future” (p.146). As the world moves towards becoming a global village, society will become even more diverse with people bringing in new values, new languages and a new way of life. Addressing diversity in the curriculum will continue to be a challenge for educators. It is a task that will at times be politically sensitive. One concept that has interested educators is assimilation or integration of the diverse groups. In the 60s and 70s the melting pot approach was adopted in some countries (most notable is the United States) in an attempt to assimilate people of different cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds. It is metaphor for the way in which diverse societies develop, in which the ingredients in the pot (people of different cultures, languages and religions) are combined so as to lose their distinct identities resulting in a final product that is quite different from the original inputs. Usually, it involved the blending of minority groups with the majority. It was hoped that a national identity would evolve from these varied attributes. However, in practice the culture of the majority became dominant. This approach has proven to be less successful in assimilating people and has been replaced by the salad bowl approach. Here people of diverse backgrounds are all in the same salad but maintain their own unique features. Cultural diversity of pluralism recognises that most societies are composed of many voices and many ethnic groups. It is a framework in which groups show respect and tolerance of each other; coexist and interact without conflict. Power and decision making is shared leading to more widespread participation and greater feeling of commitment from society members. How should curriculum address cultural diversity or pluralism? The challenge confronting educators is developing curriculum that is responsive to students’ diverse social and cultural values and at the same time capable of creating a national identity based on core values and practices. It may be necessary to have different programmes, different pedagogical approaches, flexible curriculum and even varied educational environments to address the needs of all students. No society can afford to socially or economically marginalise any student and the curriculum must nurture students to become active participants in a dynamic and emerging society (Schon, 1993). Curriculum decision making is political. Various special interest groups continually propose what should be included in school curriculum. The topics range form substance abuse to the rights and responsibilities of citizens. • Environmental groups insist that students should be taught about conservation and preservation and the inculcation of values to love the environment. Among the concerns of these groups are caring for our rivers, industrial pollution, saving the whales and leatherback turtles. • Substance abuse is another concern of society. Substance abuse includes drugs (such as heroin, marijuana, ecstasy pills, etc), alcohol, cigarettes, glue sniffing and so forth. Society has repeatedly emphasised the need for substance abuse prevention programmes to be included in school curriculum. Groups involved in prevention of drug addiction are keen to see that students are taught about drug addiction in the hope that they will be more aware of the problem and say “no” to the habit. • Consumer advocates are keen to see that students are taught about their rights and responsibilities as consumers in the hope that they will be more prudent consumers as students and later as adults. • Health groups have also suggested that schools introduce programmes about HIV Aids awareness, nutritional information, and other health related issues. As society becomes more developed, the rise in obesity is of concern in terms of its consequences on the health system, especially in worker productivity and increased expenditure on health care [refer to Activity 4.1]. • Sex education has been a topic that has been proposed at various points; especially when statistics and instances of teen pregnancy and promiscuity are highlighted by the media and government reports. • Crime prevention by educating the community on crime prevention techniques and by getting citizens involved in crime prevention activities such as neighborhood watch to reduce the number of crimes and increase the quality of life of citizens. • Governments are also determined to ensure that students are taught about their rights and responsibilities as citizens. Citizenship education has been proposed in an effort to politically socialise students with democratic ideals, principles and practices. Being prepared to play a part in political institutions is essential such as the ability to make informed decision at the personal and societal level. Similarly, to be educated to take an active part in the cultural life of society such as holding on to religious and moral beliefs, the ability to use and interpret a wide range of media, socialisation of children and so forth As society changes so does knowledge. Knowledge is growing at a rapid rate and educators are finding it a challenge as to what to include in the curriculum. Increase in knowledge, especially in science and technology is the result of increasing subdivisions and specialisations within the fields. Proliferation of several new fields of study or branches has contributed to exponential increase in the quantity of knowledge. For example, in the field of information technology alone, information is expanding daily. Just look at the number of new words and terminologies being coined in the field of computer science, telecommunication and genetic engineering. The continuing debate on what knowledge should be included in the curriculum of primary, secondary and even tertiary level education. Some segments of society argue that students should be given a general education which will equip them with generic skills to function effectively in society. Others argue that students should be given the knowledge and skills of specific disciplines to prepare them for specific careers. Futurists such as John Naisbitt and Alvin Toffler assert that knowledge should prepare students for the future. “Nothing should be included in the required curriculum unless it can be strongly justified in terms of the future. If this means scrapping a substantial part of the formal curriculum, so be it” (Toffler, 1972, p.132). Ornstein and Hunkins (1998, p.153) provide the following guiding principles in selecting knowledge for a society that is changing rapidly: 1. Knowledge should comprise basic tools (this includes reading, writing, arithmetic, oral communication and computer literacy) 2. Knowledge should facilitate learning how to learn (provide learners with skills and tools to be efficient and effective independent learners) 3. Knowledge should be applicable to the real world (to be able to apply their knowledge in the solution of real-world problems) 4. Knowledge should improve learners’ self esteem and personal integrity (learners to feel good about themselves and be able to get along with others) 5. Knowledge should consist of many forms and methods (because of there are different ways of learning, various options and alternatives should be provided for acquiring knowledge) 6. Knowledge should prepare the individual for the world of technology (able to keep abreast and function in an accelerating world of science and technology) 7. Knowledge should prepare individuals for the world of bureaucracy (able to deal with various types bureaucratic organisations in government, business, industry and services) 8. Knowledge should permit the individual to retrieve old information (to modify and transform old knowledge to produce new knowledge) 9. Knowledge acquisition should a lifelong process (schools provide the basics and beyond that individuals learn from other sources such as books, newspapers, television, internet) 10. Knowledge should be taught in context with values (teaching has to incorporate values because interpretation of knowledge reflects the value structure of the individual) Have you ever wondered what school was like in 1930? What subjects were taught to the primary school child during that time? What textbooks were used? In Malaysia, during the 1950s the textbooks used in the primary school were biased towards life in England. For example, students learned about the English farmer and his daily activities. If you trace the history of any education system, you will be able to identify many events which have influenced the curriculum. Curriculum is created by people based on the circumstances and beliefs during that period of time. The curriculum is reflective of the political ideologies, economic systems, religious convictions and conceptions of knowledge at a particular point in time. To understand how these beliefs and practices have influenced curriculum throughout history, the educational systems of the United States of America and Japan are examined beginning from the 17th century to early 20th century. 4.6.1 Case Study 1: History of the American School Curriculum Europeans came to America and established the first colony in Jameston, Virginia in 1607. Many of the people who settled in America came to escape religious persecution. The Pilgrims, founders of Plymouth, Massachusetts, arrived in 1620. Later they settled in the other New England region in the states of Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire. In the south, other than Virginia, they settled in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Maryland. Slaves were brought in to work in the tobacco and cotton plantations and by 1770 there were more than 2 million people living the colonies under British rule. School Curriculum in Colonial America: (before 1776) At the primary level, the main purpose of schooling was to teach children to read, write and spell for purpose of reading the Bible, government notices and common law. The first primary school was built in Massachusetts. There were two main types of schools, the town school and private schools. The town school was a locally controlled primary school. Often it was a crude, one-room structure attended by both boys and girls of the community (see Figure 4.1). Students sat on benches and studied their assignments until called on by the teacher to recite. In that one-room were children from ages 6 to 14 years. Attendance was not always regular depending on weather conditions and farming cycle. Which time of the farming cycle do you think attendance would be low? The private schools were established by religious groups and specific ethnic groups to educate their own children. These primary schools also focused on reading and writing and religious education and were attended by upper-class children. Figure 4.1 A One-Room Schoolhouse in Colonial America Teachers were expected to know many subjects as they taught students of different age groups attending different grades in one classroom. [Source: www.newdeal.feri.org/library/ab95.htm] At the secondary level there were two types of schools; Latin grammar schools and the Academy. The sons of the upper class attended Latin Grammar School for preparation toward entering university. The curriculum consisted of studying Latin, Greek, arithmetic, classical literature, ancient history and religious education. These schools followed closely the model of European schools and their role was to support the religious and social institutions of that era (Morrison, 1990). The Academy was established to offer a practical curriculum for those not going to university. Its curriculum consisted of English grammar, classics, composition, rhetoric and public speaking. Latin was not considered a crucial subject. Students could choose a foreign language based on their vocational needs. For example, those who wanted to go into business could do German, French or Spanish. Mathematics and history was given importance together with the teaching of specific skills such carpentry, engraving, printing, farming, bookkeeping and so on. With regards to university education, most students from Latin grammar schools went to Harvard or Yale. The curriculum consisted of courses in Latin, grammar, logic, rhetoric, astronomy, ethics, metaphysics, ancient history, Greek, Hebrew and natural sciences. The education system described above was to a large extent confined to the New England States. What was happening to the rest of the United States? In the Southern colonies (such as South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland and Georgia), education was left to the family or home education. Wealthy landowners employed private tutors to educate their children and some sent their children to England to finish their education. For most poor whites who worked on their farms, formal education was nonexistent. Unable to read and read and write, many grew up to be subsistence farmers like their parents before them. Children of black slaves in the plantations were forbidden to learn to read and write and were cast aside as the underclass of society. Children were taught from an early age that mankind was divided naturally by race; each race having certain physical and mental characteristics which had remained fundamentally unchanged throughout history. Southerners justified slavery on the basis that blacks were incapable of improvement, all the while denying them access to any type of formalised education. School Curriculum after Independence: (1776 -1900) The American Revolution of 1776 ended British rule in the colonies. The new government set a new mission for education. Emphasis was on ‘life, liberty and equality’ as enshrined in the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights which formed the constitution of the United States of America. Emphasis on democracy, the development of a strong federal government, the idea of religious freedom and the new discoveries in natural science saw the decline of religious influence over primary and secondary schools (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). For example, individuals like Benjamin Rush and Thomas Jefferson asserted that American schools should be reformed to focus on subjects such as science, reading, writing, geography and higher mathematics. Education should be made accessible to the wider population and not confined to upper-class and privileged few. Mass education was essential if citizens are to actively participate in the democratic process. The monitorial system taken from Europe was introduced in American schools by Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838) in which academically superior students or monitors were taught by the teachers and they in turn taught their classmates. The system enabled a small number of adult masters to educate large numbers of students at low costs in basic and often advanced skills. Instruction was highly structured and based on rote learning and drilling of reading, writing and arithmetic. The system was practiced both in primary and secondary schools. Later this system gave way to schools that were graded and students of the same age groups were grouped together. The common school, today’s public school, evolved as a result of the belief that a well-educated citizenry was essential to the survival of a new-found democracy. Through a common programme of civic education, it set out to inculcate an American identity and loyalty. Its major purpose was to integrate children of various social, economic and ethnic backgrounds into the broad American community. The aim of the common school was to develop basic literacy skills of students that could be used in everyday life as well as learn skills and attitudes that made one into a competent shopkeeper, merchant, artisan and worker. The education provided as to facilitate upward mobility and occupational choice (Ornstein and Levine, 1985). Schools were financed by the state and the local community who governed them. The coming of the common school laid the foundation of the American public school system. By 1900 the majority of children aged 6 to 13 were enrolled in primary schools. Table 4.1 traces the curriculum of the American primary school from 1800 until 1900. Table 4.1 The American Primary School Curriculum 1800-1900 1800 1825 1850 1875 1900 Reading Reading Declamation Declamation Literature Literature Spelling Spelling Spelling Spelling Spelling Writing Writing Writing Penmanship Writing Religion Good behaviour Conduct Conduct Conduct Arithmetic Arithmetic Mental arithmetic Arithmetic Primary/Advance Arithmetic - Manners and morals Manners - - - Bookkeeping Bookkeeping - - - Grammar Grammar Grammar Grammar - Geography Geography Home geography Text geography Geography Text geography - - US History US History History studies - - Object lessons Object lessons Nature study - - - Science Science - - - Drawing Drawing - - - Physical exercises Physical training - - - - Music, play, sewing, cooking [Source: From E.P. Cubberley (1920), The History of Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p.756, cited in A. Ornstein and F. Hunkins, Curriculum: Foundations, Principles and Issues. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p.74] Later in the 19th century, the public high school was fashioned to complete the educational ladder that led to the state college and university. As the common school movement expanded, the ideal was to provide as much education as possible for all children and youth. The slogan was “more education for more people” and high schools were established and it gradually replaced the Academy. By 1890 there were 2526 high schools in the United States with an enrolment of more than 200,000 students. In 1900 about 10% of the youth aged 14 to 17 were in school which rose to 50% in 1930. The provision of public secondary schools became an obligation of the states, rather than a volunteer matter for parents and the local district to decide. Between 1800 and 1825, the curriculum of American secondary schools consisted of Latin, Greek, classical literature, writing, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, bookkeeping, grammar, rhetoric, surveying, astronomy, geography, philosophy and foreign languages (Spanish, German & French). Between 1875 and 1900, the curriculum included all subjects listed earlier plus the following subjects: meteorology, chemistry, physiology, health education, botany, zoology, biology, physics, world history and ancient history. The curriculum was expanded to allow students to explore their interests and capabilities. 4.6.2 Case Study 2: History of Japan’s School Curriculum School Curriculum: Tokugawa Era (1603-1867) A significant date in Japanese history is the ending of wars between different warlords in 1603 and the founding of the Tokugawa Regime by Tokugawa Ieyasu. The Tokugawa family took over control of the country and ruled as Shogun or “generalissimo”, in the name of the Emperor. The Shogun’s government, called the Bakufu (or ‘tent-government’) was a the national government of Japan which had jurisdiction over areas controlled by the Tokugawa family as well as areas controlled by many feudal lords. The Tokugawa shoguns established a high bureaucratic government, giving great control over Japanese society from its system of education to its business practices and religious institutions. Japanese society was stratified as follows: daimyo (lords), samurai (warrior), farmers, artisan, merchants and others (actors and outcasts). During the Tokugawa period, there were five types of schools, namely; shogunal schools, daimyo schools, shijuku, terakoya and gogaku. The Shogunal schools were for the children age 8 to15 years from the samurai or warrior class. Emphasis was on the teaching of Confucianism (it was forbidden to teach other doctrines), gunnery, technology and cartography. Confucian classics were memorised, and reading and reciting them were common methods of study. With this form of education the role of the samurai gradually changed from warrior to administrator. By the end of the Tokugawa era there were 27 shogunal schools. The Domain schools were set up in all the feudal domains of Japan and provided education for the samurai but later extended to commoners. The curriculum was based on Confucian ideas but included history of Japan and China, calligraphy, composition and etiquette. Some of the domain schools also taught Chinese and Western medicine, Dutch studies, military science, geography and astronomy. There were nearly 300 domain schools and about half opened their doors to commoners. Many of the schools emphasised different curriculum for the different ranks of the samurai. For example, for the higher ranked samurai children character education was most important with focus on proper manners, proper language to superiors and inferiors, frugality, toughness, moderation in food and drink. The aim was to prepare them to take over the governing class and to be future leaders. ‘Practical’ subjects such as arithmetic and Western subjects which produced technicians was introduced to the lower samurai class and commoners but not the higher samurai class. The Shijuku (private academies) were private schools which provided education for the samurai class from primary until higher education. Similar to the domain schools, many of them opened their doors to commoners. There were about 1,100 shijuku schools by the end of the Tokugawa era. These schools offered a curriculum consisting of medicine, Dutch studies, Western subjects, military subjects and navigation. Since they were private schools, they were freer than other schools to teach doctrines and subjects that were forbidden (Passin, 1982). These schools became the centres which held strong views against the Tokugawa shogunate. They produced leaders who helped spread Western ideas and knowledge. The idea of merit was being practiced in these schools as opposed to the class students originated from. For example, an individual’s performance and examination grades were emphasised rather than his social class. Figure 4.2 Terakoya schools during the Tokugawa period Temple schools educated children of common people. Students were taught to read, write and use the abacus. In capital city of Edo, the literacy rate was 86% for boys and 30% for girls. In the outlying areas, the literacy rate for boys was 56% and for girls it was 15%. [Source: www.honco.net/.../01/caption/caption-3-09.html] The Terakoya (children of the temple) was the most important and widespread school for commoners. These schools were originally run by Buddhist temples but later became secular for the common people (see Figure 4.2). Though the majority of terakoya schools were concentrated in the towns and cities, some were established in the rural areas to improve the literacy levels of farmers and artisans. The majority of terakoya schools focussed on reading, writing and arithmetic. Some schools also taught vocational subjects, etiquette, morals and accounting while others taught geography, history, science, military arts and even English. Students were not divided into grades. Although coeducation was the norm, there were far fewer girls than boys, and the two groups were rigidly separated in seating arrangements. Attendance requirements were casual and easily adjusted to the work routines of shop or farm. During the busy agricultural season village terakoya schools were closed and students were given time to keep up with their household chores. By the end of the Tokugawa era there were 14,000 terakoya schools and over 17,000 teachers. Teachers were not trained or licensed. Most were volunteers consisting of retired officials, public-spirited samurai and educated commoners. Students did not pay fees and teachers were not paid. Schools were maintained by donations. Teachers were highly respected and had great authority. According to a well-known textbook, “the pupil should be careful not to step on the teacher’s shadow or to come within seven paces of him” (Passin, 1982, p.33). Teaching methods were not standardised and the basic subjects were taught using simple primers (elementary textbooks) prepared by teachers which were closely liked to the daily life and occupational expectations of students. The following are some examples of these primers: • Farmer’s reader • Increased Profits for Farmers • Bumper Crops • Merchant Reader • Navigation and Shipping Reader • Wholesaler’s Reader Apart from formal schooling, a highly developed apprenticeship system provided direct vocational training. This was carried out mainly in the family, though some involved apprenticeship in commercial houses. Besides learning a trade, the training also included discipline and proper behaviour. The educational achievements and the high respect for learning of Tokugawa Japan played a large role in Japan’s smooth transition to the modern age in the Meiji period. With a large number of schools for both samurai and commoner children, the country had achieved a high general literacy rate. The Tokugawa shogunate showed great interest in learning even from foreign countries. They supported the translation and study of Western works on science, geography, medicine, military science and other subjects. These studies allowed the Japanese to be exposed to Western technology and ideas, which facilitated the transition of Japan to a modern country in the Meiji era. School Curriculum: Meiji Era (1867 - 1900) When the Tokugawa period began, few common people in Japan could read or write. By the period's end, learning had become widespread. Tokugawa education left a valuable legacy: an increasingly literate populace, an ideology based on meritocracy (even though it practiced feudalism), and an emphasis on discipline and competent performance. Under subsequent Meiji leadership, this foundation would facilitate Japan's rapid transition from a feudal country to a modern nation. Internally Japan was faced with an entirely new form of government; having been ruled under a feudal system since 1600, the Japanese were not individually prepared to become a modern nation. To better prepare themselves for modernization, a national education system was introduced o help Japan catch up with the West. The education system would not only raise the level of common education, but would also work toward instilling a sense of national pride. Initially the Japanese hurriedly translated western text books and used them in their classrooms. However, they soon learned that schooling can be used as a boost to national pride; by replacing American or European stories of triumph with those of Japanese war heroes. The education system was used to establish a strong sense of Japanese patriotism. Also, the new system of education was geared toward creating a distinctively Japanese culture; no longer would the Japanese use traditional Chinese symbols in formal writing, instead they developed a system of casual writing that would be understood broadly. The education system was developed in a manner that would prepare the youth for more technical positions all the while creating a strong sense of nationalism and love for the Emperor. Even with the progress in the field of education, more had to be done to remove the feudal traditions of the past. In order to prepare the population for a centrally administered government, the traditional feudal districts were gradually consolidated into larger blocks. The larger districts allowed for a more efficient system of administration and gave the government more power to control the people. In educating their society, the Japanese not only sent thousands of students abroad to study at foreign universities, they also hand selected individuals who would visit other countries and study specific niches of culture, industry, or military. From their experiences the Japanese then consciously decided which methods to adopt. They looked to the United States for educational reforms. As an indication of its success, elementary school enrollments climbed from about 40 or 50 percent of the school-age population in the 1870s to more than 90 percent by 1900. By the 1890s, after earlier intensive preoccupation with Western ideas a conservative and traditional orientation evolved: the education system became more reflective of Japanese values. The emperor when visiting a local school, found out that some Japanese students speaking in English were unable to translate back into Japanese the English that they spoke. In 1879, he issued the Great Principles of Education and argued that the decline of Japanese culture was due to Western education. Confucian precepts were stressed, especially those concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state, the pursuit of learning, and morality. In the early twentieth century, education at the primary level was egalitarian and virtually universal, but at higher levels it was highly selective, and elitist. College education was largely limited to the few national universities. Three of the imperial universities admitted women, and there were a number of women's colleges, some quite prestigious, but women had relatively few opportunities to enter higher education. READINGS • Alistair, R. (2000). Curriculum: Construction and Critique. London: Falmer Press. Chapter 3: Conflict in the curriculum? [available at eBrary]. • Cornbleth, C. (2000). Curriculum Politics, Policy, Practice. New York: State University of New York Press. Chapter 7: Curriculum as a site of memory: The struggle of a history in South Africa [available at eBrary] • Ornstein, A. and Hunkins, F. Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. (1998). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 5: Social foundations of curriculum. • Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 5: Studies of society and culture.

Communication Skills' Mid Term Test

English Department
State Polytechnics of Padang
Communication Skills Mid-Term Test
4th of May 2011
Yohannes Telaumbanua


A. Read and Answer the following question thoroughly and correctly!
Explain the answers with your own!
1. What are communication skills?
2. Why Are Communication Skills Important?
3. Are communication skills necessary?

B. Choose the best and the correct answer from one out of the three choices provided below!

1. When conversing with others,
A. I usually do most of the talking.
B. I usually let the other person do most of the talking.
C. I try to equalize my participation in the conversation.

2. When I first meet someone,
A. I wait for the other person to make the introduction first.
B. I introduce myself with a smile and offer a handshake.
C. When I first meet someone, I hug the person.

3. I usually,
A. "warm-up" new conversations with small talk.
B. I usually avoid small talk and jump into more important matters.
C. I usually avoid starting conversations.

4. I usually,
A. Make an effort to remember and use peoples' names.
B. Don't pay attention to names as I tend to forget them.
C. Only learn the names of important people.

5. I_________ use courtesy words and phrases - "Please," "Thank you," "You’re welcome," "I'm sorry."
A. Frequently
B. Occasionally
C. Never

6. I tend to
A. to be serious and don't smile often while conversing.
B. Smile all the time while conversing.
C. Smile at appropriate times while conversing.

7. I ________make eye contact while conversing.
A. Always.
B. Sometimes.
C. Never.

8. While conversing,
A. I hold my head still at all times.
B. I nod my head at appropriate times.
C. I nod my head constantly.

9. While conversing,
A. I stand one-foot away from the person.
B. I stand two- to three-feet away from the person.
C. I stand five- to six-feet away from the person.

10. I often,
A. Stand while talking to a person who is sitting.
B. Sit while talking to a person who is sitting.
C. Lean down while talking to a person who is sitting.

11. To end a conversation,
A. I often just leave.
B. I begin to look impatient hoping the person will get the hint.
C. I wrap up with a closing statement.


12. If a co-worker has put on weigh
A. I say nothing about it.
B. I tell the person that he or she has changed in appearance.
C. I honestly tell the person that he or she looks fat.

13. When I'm listening to the speaker
A. I often cross my arms over my chest.
B. I often lean back and turn my body away from the speaker.
C. I often lean slightly forward and face my body toward the speaker.

14. When I cross my leg
A. I cross my leg facing the speaker.
B. I cross my leg away from the speaker.
C. I bob my foot.

15. While listening,
A. I tend to be distracted by things going on around me.
B. I listen for meaning and ask questions.
C. I watch the person speak, but I don't "hear" a word.

16. When someone talks about an unfortunate or sad experience
A. I don't comment about it.
B. I try to change the subject.
C., I try to relate to the person's feelings and show sensitivity to his or her misfortune.

17. When I discuss a topic
A. I tend to talk about and focus on positive (good) aspects.
B. I tend to talk about and focus on the negative (bad) aspects.
C., I tend to complain.

18. When I have a negative opinion or comment
A. I just say it.
B. I lead in with a positive comment first.
C. I say nothing.

19. When I receive unfavorable feedback
A. I note where I need to improve.
B. I get angry and defensive.
C. I deny the problem, make excuses, or plead ignorance.

20. When I give a person negative feedback
A. I focus on the person's observable work or behavior and offer suggestions.
B. When I give a person negative feedback, I focus on what I don't like about the person.
C. I simply tell the person what to do right.

21. When I give a person negative feedback,
A. I do it around others so everyone can hear.
B. I do it in front of the supervisor.
C. I talk with the person alone in a private place.

22. When I disagree with a person,
A. I listen first, ask questions for clarification, then disagree non-judgmentally.
B. I quickly point out the person is wrong and why.
C. When I disagree with a person, I say little or nothing.

23. When I'm in a group,
A. I tend to frown a lot.
B. I tend to smile and use humor at appropriate times.
C. I tend to be serious.

24. This last item has four choices (A, B, C or D). Which one best describes you?

A. I'm a "hands-on" person. I tend to:
prefer hands-on experiences and activities;
focus on tasks to be done;
refrain from discussions;
think in a logical and organized way;
do things in an orderly way;
have difficulty adjusting to change.

B. I'm a "thinker." I tend to:
enjoy listening to a logical presentation of ideas;
enjoy analyzing problems and finding systematic ways to solve problems;
enjoy creating models based on theory and information;
like structure and organization;
act slowly in making decisions;
show more interest in ideas than people.

C. I'm an "explorer." I tend to:
try things by trial and error;
explore practical uses for ideas and theories;
make decisions that provide quick solutions;
decide quickly;
take risks;
enjoy change;
rely more on people for information.

D. I'm a "free thinker." I tend to:
base views and opinions on feelings;
enjoy tossing around ideas (brainstorming);
approach and view problems and experiences from different perspectives;
rely on intuition, not logic, for making decisions;
dislike structure.

Good Luck

Business Letter (II A Regular AN)

Business letter
A commercial business letter is a letter written in formal language, usually used when writing from one business organization to another, or for correspondence between such organizations and their customers, clients and other external parties. The overall style of letter will depend on the relationship between the parties concerned.
• 1 Types of Letter
o 1.1 Letter of Inquiry
• 2 General Format
o 2.1 Elements
o 2.2 Line Spacing
o 2.3 Font Formatting
o 2.4 Punctuation
o 2.5 Example Template
• 3 Indentation Formats
o 3.1 Block
o 3.2 Semi-Block
o 3.3 Modified Block
o 3.4 Modified Semi-Block
Types of Letter
Letter of Inquiry
A letter of inquiry is a general term used for a number of different kinds of business letters addressed to a company.
General Format
There are two main styles of business letters:
1. Full block style: Align all elements on the left margin.
• This example is personal business; as a result, it's written from me (Nicholas Strachan) using my (fictional) home address on Laurier Avenue in Ottawa.
• If the letter was about company business, I'd use my company letterhead.
1385 Laurier Avenue
Ottawa, Ontario K2G 1V8

January 6, 2011


James Moore, Human Resources Manager
Global Market Incorporated (Inc.)
45 Spadina Avenue
Toronto, Ontario M5W 1E5
Dear Mr. Moore:
This is semi-block letter format.
It too begins with the sender’s address, the date, the receiver’s name and address, and then the opening salutation. The difference between full-block and semi block is easy:
• In full-block format, nothing is indented.
• In semi-block format, the sender’s address, date and closing salutation are indented.
• In semi-block format, it is also permissible to indent the paragraphs, but it is not necessary to do so.
If you have questions about this format, please email me.
Sincerely,
Nicholas Strachan
Nicholas Strachan



















Full-Block Format Letter


1 1/2 inch margin

Company Logo or Letterhead (kop surat)



6-10 spaces


<- 1 1/4 inch margin ->
March 15, 2001


2-4 spaces

Mr. John Smith, Director of Operations
SomeGroup Group
SomeStreet Drive
Sometown, VA 12345
2 spaces
Dear Mr. Smith:
2 spaces
Thank you for your inquiry about Full-Block format for letters. What follows is a quick summary of the format and the conventions it uses.
Full block format is considered the most formal of the three styles. In full block format or style, every line is left justified. The dateline is placed two to six line spaces below the last line of the heading or letterhead. The inside address placement varies depending upon the length of the letter. A common spacing is four line spaces below the date line. The salutation is placed two lines below the attention line (if an attention line is provided). The first line of the body is placed two lines below an attention line or two to four lines below the last inside address line. When using full block, paragraphs are single spaced, with a double space between paragraphs.
While there are no set rules governing format use, full block is generally used for (1) requests or inquiries, (2) claims, (3) announcements, (4) records of agreement, (5) transmittal of other technical documents, and (6) job applications. Most other types of letters use semi-block or simplified format. This page illustrates the spacing and layout of full block format.
2 spaces
Sincerely yours ,


4 spaces

Dr. Sheila Carter-Tod
English Instructor
2 spaces
CC Notation
2 spaces
Enclosure


1 1/2 inch margin

Semi-Block Format Letter

1 1/2 inch margin

Company Logo or Letterhead



6-10 spaces



<- 1 1/4 inch margin ->
March 15, 2001


2-4 spaces

Mr. John Smith, Director of Operations
SomeGroup Group
SomeStreet Drive
Sometown, VA 12345
2 spaces
Dear Mr. Smith :
2 spaces
Thank you for your inquiry about Semi-Block format for letters. What follows is a quick summary of the format and the conventions it uses.
Semi-block format or style is frequently called modified semi-block because it is a slightly less formal modification of full block format. This letter style places the date line in alignment with, or slightly to the right of dead center. Another option for placing the date line in semi-block is flush right. Similar to full block, semi-block places the inside address, salutation and any end notations flush with the left margin. However, unlike full block, each body paragraph of semi-block is indented five spaces. The complimentary close and signature block are aligned under the date.
This page illustrates the spacing and layout of semi-block format. Both full block and semi-block formats generally contain all of the necessary parts of a letter.
2 spaces
Sincerely yours,


4 spaces

Dr. Sheila Carter-Tod
English Instructor
2 spaces
SCT/jm
2 spaces
Enclosure


1 1/2 inch margin

Semi-Block Format Letter

1 1/2 inch margin

Company Logo or Letterhead



6-10 spaces


<- 1 1/4 inch margin ->
March 15, 2001


2-4 spaces

Mr. John Smith, Director of Operations
SomeGroup Group
SomeStreet Drive
Sometown, VA 12345
2 spaces
SIMPLIFIED FORMAT LETTERS
2 spaces
Thank you for your inquiry about Simplified format for letters. What follows is a quick summary of the format and the conventions it uses.
Simplified format or style unlike full block and semi-block has fewer internal parts. This format is also the most widely used format in professional correspondence. Simplified format is focused and professional without unnecessary formality. Simplified format places all internal parts in left alignment; however, the traditional salutation is replaced with an all-caps subject line that is also placed flush with the left margin. Body paragraphs are left aligned and single spaced within and double spaced between. In simplified style, the writer's name and title, if necessary, are aligned with the left margin and typed in all caps at least five spaces below the last line of the body or message of the letter.
This page illustrates the spacing and layout of simplified format. Both full block and semi-block formats generally contain all of the necessary parts of a letter.
2 spaces
Sincerely yours,



5 spaces

DR. SHEILA CARTER-TOD
ENGLISH INSTRUCTOR
2 spaces
SCT/jm
2 spaces
Enclosure


1 1/2 inch margin








2. Modified block style: Down the middle of the page, align the return address, date, closing, signature, and typed name; align other elements on the left page margin.
Sample Business Letters
Modified Block Style Business Letter Components

Parts of a Business Letter
1. Return Address: If your stationery has a letterhead, skip this. Otherwise, type your name, address and optionally, phone number, five spaces to the right of center or flush with the right margin. Five spaces to the right of center is common. These days, it's also common to include an email address.
2. Date: Type the date five spaces to the right of center or flush with the right margin, two to six lines below the letterhead. Five spaces to the right of center and three lines below the letterhead are common. If there is no letterhead, type it where shown.
3. Reference Line: If the recipient specifically requests information, such as a job reference or invoice number, type it on one or two lines, immediately below and aligned with the Date (2). If you're replying to a letter, refer to it here. For example,
• Re: Job # 625-01
• Re: Your letter dated 1/1/200x.
4. Special Mailing Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if appropriate. Examples include
• SPECIAL DELIVERY
• CERTIFIED MAIL
• AIRMAIL
5. On-Arrival Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if appropriate. You might want to include a notation on private correspondence, such as a resignation letter. Include the same on the envelope. Examples are
• PERSONAL
• CONFIDENTIAL
6. Inside Address: Type the name and address of the person and/or company to whom you're sending the letter, three to eight lines below the last component you typed. Four lines are standard. If you type an Attention Line (7), skip the person's name here. Do the same on the envelope.
7. Attention Line: Type the name of the person to whom you're sending the letter. If you type the person's name in the Inside Address (6), skip this. Do the same on the envelope.
8. Salutation: Type the recipient's name here. Type Mr. or Ms. [Last Name] to show respect, but don't guess spelling or gender. Some common salutations are
• Ladies:
• Gentlemen:
• Dear Sir:
• Dear Sir or Madam:
• Dear [Full Name]:
• To Whom it May Concern:
9. Subject Line: Type the gist of your letter in all uppercase characters. Be concise on one line. If you type a Reference Line (3), consider if you really need this line. While it's not really necessary for most employment-related letters, examples are below.
• SUBJECT: RESIGNATION
• LETTER OF REFERENCE
• JOB INQUIRY
10. Body: Type two spaces between sentences. Keep it brief and to the point.
11. Complimentary Close: Type this aligned with the Date (2). What you type here depends on the tone and degree of formality. For example,
• Respectfully yours (very formal)
• Sincerely (typical, less formal)
• Very truly yours (polite, neutral)
• Cordially yours (friendly, informal)
12. Signature Block: Align this with the Complimentary Close (11). Leave four blank lines to sign your name. Sign it exactly the same as you typed it below your signature. Title is optional depending on relevancy and degree of formality. Examples are
• John Doe, Manager
• P. Smith
Director, Technical Support
• R. T. Jones - Sr. Field Engineer
13. Identification Initials: If someone typed the letter for you, he or she would typically include three of your initials in all uppercase characters, then two of his or hers in all lowercase characters. If you typed your own letter, just skip it since your name is already in the Signature Block (12). Common styles are below.
• JAD/cm
• JAD:cm
• clm
14. Enclosure Notation: This line tells the reader to look in the envelope for more. Type the singular for only one enclosure, plural for more. If you don't enclose anything, skip it. Common styles are below.
• Enclosure
• Enclosures: 3
• Enclosures (3)
15. cc: Stands for courtesy copies (formerly carbon copies). List the names of people to whom you distribute copies, in alphabetical order. If addresses would be useful to the recipient of the letter, include them. If you don't copy your letter to anyone, skip it.
Tips:
• Replace the text in brackets [ ] with the component indicated. Don't type the brackets.
• Try to keep your letters to one page, but see page 2 of this sample if you need continuation pages.
• How many blank lines you add between lines that require more than one, depends on how much space is available on the page.
• The same goes for margins. One and one-half inch (108 points) for short letters and one inch (72 points) for longer letters are standard. If there is a letterhead, its position determines the top margin on page 1.
• If you don't type one of the more formal components, don't leave space for them. For example, if you don't type the Reference Line (3), Special Mailing Notations (4) and On-Arrival Notations (5), type the Inside Address (6) four lines below the Date (2).
MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE LETTERS
LONGHURST INSTRUCTIONS
MODIFIED BLOCK LETTER
LONGHURST LETTER

DIRECTIONS:
Type the letter to Ms. Longhurst in MODIFIED BLOCK style with paragraphs indented. Use MIXED PUNCTUATION.

Remember: MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE MEANS THAT THE DATE IS CENTERED, AND THE SIGNATURE BLOCK IS AT THE CENTER OF THE PAPER--NOT CENTERED. (Do not hit CTRL-E, but tab over to the center.)

IN MODIFIED BLOCK, THE PARAGRAPHS CAN BE INDENTED BUT DON'T HAVE TO BE.

MIXED PUNCTUATION MEANS THERE IS A COLON AFTER THE SALUTATION AND A COMMA AFTER THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE.

1. Type the Heading or Letterhead in the center using a fancy font that looks nice. The company name needs to be in a larger font than the address.

HENSON AND SONS, 3325 W. 220 S., Springville, UT 81637

2. Space down 2-3 lines and type the current date in the center of the paper. It usually looks best if it is centered under the heading.

3. Quadruple space between the date and the Inside Address.

Inside Address: Ms. Sandra Longhurst, Production Manager, Alpha Products, Inc., 330 Brisbane Way, Decatur, IL 10287

4. Double space after the Inside Address and type the Salutation--Dear Ms. Longhurst Since this is MIXED PUNCTUATION, you will type a colon after the Salutation.

5. Double space after the Salutation and type the Body of the letter singled spaced with double spaces between paragraphs.

BODY OF LETTER

We would like to thank you for the high quality rugs that we recently received from your company. We were not only impressed with the manufacturing but with the beautiful colors. We tested the quality and color durability of one of these rugs by washing it 20 times. We are very happy to report that the colors did not fade, and the rug looked just like new after repeated washings.

Of course, we were extremely happy about the prices of these rugs. We are able to offer them to our customers at a 25% savings over the rugs we formerly bought from one of your competitors.


Our best news, however, is how the customers have received these rugs. We have heard nothing but compliments from them. The rugs quickly sold out, and we are impatiently waiting for our second--and much larger--shipment from you.

Keep up the good work. We look forward to many years of business with you.

6. Double space after the body and type the Complimentary Close--Sincerely Yours-- in the center of the page--use the tab key to get to center. Since this is MIXED PUNCTUATION, you will follow the Complimentary Close with a comma.

7. Quadruple space after the Complimentary Close and type the person's name who wrote the letter--Helen Wise. This should start at the center directly under the Complimentary Close.

Example:
Sincerely yours,




Helen Wise (put this directly under Sincerely)

8. Single space after the name and type the writer's position--President-also tabbed to the center.

9. Double space and type your initials for the Reference Initials in lower case letters at the left margin.

10. Make sure you type your name and Longhurst at the bottom of the letter.

11. Save in your Word Processing folder under Longhurst. Print. Do not close.


MODIFIED BLOCK LETTER 2
LONGHURST LETTER 2

1. Now change the LONGHURST letter to OPEN PUNCTUATION with no paragraphs indented. Keep it in MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE.

2. Resave it under Longhurst2.

3. At the bottom, label your letter LONGHURST2 and print.

MAKE SURE YOU SIGN EACH LETTER WITH THE WRITER'S NAME AFTER YOU HAVE PRINTED IT.
LONGHURST RUBRICS


DECKER INSTRUCTIONS
MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE
GRADY DECKER LETTER


Format: Modified Block; paragraphs not indented
Punctuation: Mixed
Save as: Decker

Letterhead: Western Business Machines, 204 Ontario Drive, Portland, OR 21902
Date: Use current date
Mr. Grady M. Decker/AFT Laboratories/407 Groton Street/Hartford, CT 06106
Dear Mr. Decker
Because I have worked previously with a company similar to yours, Lehman asked me to respond to your inquiry about typing letters in the modified block style.

This letter, Mr. Decker, is an example of one that has been typed in modified block style without indented paragraphs. Notice that all lines except the date and complimentary close are “blocked;” that is, they begin at the left margin. However, a modified block letter may have the paragraphs indented.

The spacing between parts of business letters is standard and should be carefully observed. Notice the placement of this average length letter. For a short or long letter, the date is raised or lowered and the length of writing line changed.

I am happy to enclose our booklet on the subject of letter styles and special features of business letters.
Sincerely yours
(Your Name)
Consultant
df
Enclosure
DECKER RUBRIC


Elements
Business letters (in the United States) usually contain the following elements, in order:
• Sender's address & contact information
• Date of writing
• Recipient's name, title, company, & address
• Salutation/greeting
• Subject
• Message (body of the letter)
• Valediction/closing
• Sender's signature
• Sender's name, title, company
In some situations, a business letter may also include the following optional information:
• Enclosures (Encl.: or Enc.:)
• Carbon Copy Recipients (cc:)
• Reference Initials (of the typist, if different from original author of letter)
Line Spacing
In general, each element or paragraph of the letter is followed by a single blank line, except:
• the date, followed by three or four blank lines;
• the final content paragraph, followed by two blank lines;
• the valediction/closing, followed by three or four blank lines (enough for the sender to sign the letter); and
• the sender's title, followed by two blank lines.
Font Formatting
No special character or font formatting is used, except for the subject line, which is usually underlined
Punctuation
The salutation/greeting is generally followed by a comma, although in the United States a colon is often preferred. The valediction/closing is followed by a comma.
Example Template
[SENDER'S NAME]
[SENDER'S ADDRESS]
(optional[SENDER'S PHONE]
(optional[SENDER'S E-MAIL]

[DATE]


[RECIPIENT W/O PREFIX]
[RECIPIENT'S TITLE]
[RECIPIENT'S COMPANY]
[RECIPIENT'S ADDRESS]

(Optional) Attention [DEPARTMENT/PERSON],

Dear [RECIPIENT W/ PREFIX]:

Re: [SUBJECT] [First Salutation then Subject in Business letters]

[CONTENT.]

[CONTENT.]


[VALEDICTION (Sincerely, Respectfully, Regards, etc.)],




[SENDER]
[SENDER'S TITLE]


Enclosures ([NUMBER OF ENCLOSURES])

cc: [CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]
[CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]

Indentation Formats
Business letters generally conform to one of four indentation formats: Block, Semi-Block, Modified Block, and Modified Semi-Block. Put simply, "Semi-" means that the first lines of paragraphs are indented; "Modified" means that the sender's address, date, and closing are significantly indented.
Block
In a Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are not indented. 3) parts and paragraphs are separated by double or triple spacing.
Semi-Block
In a Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are indented.
Modified Block
In a Modified Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are not indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented three inches from the left margin, but can be set anywhere to the right of the middle of the page, as long as all three elements are indented to the same position.
Modified Semi-Block
In a Modified Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented by: Richard Babon
Guide to Basic Business Letters
The basics of good business letter writing are easy to learn. The following guide provides the phrases that are usually found in any standard business letter. These phrases are used as a kind of frame and introduction to the content of business letters. At the end of this guide, you will find links to sites that give tips on the difficult part of writing successful business letters – arguing your business objective. By using these standard phrases, you can give a professional tone to your English business letters.
The Start
1. Dear Personnel Director,
2. Dear Sir or Madam: (use if you don't know who you are writing to)
3. Dear Dr, Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms Smith: (use if you know who you are writing to, and have a formal relationship with - VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss)
4. Dear Frank: (use if the person is a close business contact or friend)
The Reference
1. With reference to your advertisement in the Times, your letter of 23 rd March,
your phone call today,
2. Thank you for your letter of March 5 th .
The Reason for Writing
1. I am writing to inquire about…
…apologizing for
…I am confirming that
Requesting
1. Could you possibly?
2. I would be grateful if you could…
Agreeing to Requests
1. I would be delighted to…
Giving Bad News
1. Unfortunately…
2. I am afraid that…
Enclosing Documents
1. I am enclosing…
2. Please find enclosed…
3. Enclosed you will find…
Closing Remarks
1. Thank you for your help Please contact us again if we can help in any way.
…There are any problems…(or)
…you have any questions…
Reference to Future Contact
1. I look forward to ...
…hearing from you soon.
…meeting you next Tuesday.
…seeing you next Thursday.
The Finish
1. Yours faithfully, … (If you don't know the name of the person you're writing to)
2. Yours sincerely, … (If you know the name of the person you're writing to)
3. Best wishes, …
4. Best regards, … (If the person is a close business contact or friend)

















Sample Letter
Here is a sample letter using some of these forms:
Ken's Cheese House
34 Chatley Avenue
Seattle, WA 98765
Tel:
Fax:
Email: kenny@cheese.com
October 23, 2006
Fred Flintstone
Sales Manager
Cheese Specialists Inc.
456 Rubble Road
Rockville, IL

Dear Mr Flintstone:
With reference to our telephone conversation today, I am writing to confirm your order for: 120 x Cheddar Deluxe Ref. No. 856
The order will be shipped within three days via UPS and should arrive at your store in about 10 days.
Please contact us again if we can help in any way.
Yours sincerely,

Kenneth Beare
Director of Ken's Cheese House





How to Write a Formal Business Letter
The business-letter format is very important for communicating formally with a company. You shouldn't write in the same voice as when you write family or friends, a business letter needs to be more formal. These steps describe the full block format, in which all lines start at the left.
Instructions
Things you will need:
 Envelopes
 Computers
 Printers
 Printer Paper
 Postage Stamps
1. Type the letter using a word processor. Formal letters should not be written by hand.
2. Use your own letterhead. If you don't have letterhead, use formal, 8 1/2-inch-by-11-inch stationery with a matching envelope. Avoid store-bought note cards.
3. If you don't have preprinted letterhead, type your name, title and return address four to six lines down from the top of the page.
4. Type the date two to six lines down from the letterhead or return address. Three lines below is the standard.
5. Choose your alignment: left aligned or justified on both sides.
6. Skip two lines and type the recipient's full name, business title and address, aligned at the left margin. Precede the name with Mr., Ms. or Dr. as appropriate.
7. Skip two to four lines and follow with your greeting, again using the formal name and closing with a colon "Dear Mr. Jones:" for example.
8. Skip two more lines and begin your letter. Introduce yourself in the first paragraph, if the recipient does not already know you. Examples: 'We recently met at a seminar at the Biltmore' or 'I recently purchased an insurance plan from your company.'
9. Continue with the body of the letter, stating your main purpose for writing. This may be to lodge a complaint, compliment the business on its products or services, or request information. Be as brief and concise as possible.
10. Skip two lines and conclude the letter with 'Sincerely,' 'Thank you' or 'Best wishes,' followed by a comma.
11. Leave at least four blank lines for your signature, then type your name and title. Sign the letter in ink in the space created.





Kinds of Business Letters
Business letters should sound professional and contain no grammatical errors.
Business letters can initiate communication with a prospect, a client or another business. They can also be written in response to a request. Written on company letterhead and following a block letter style, business letters may be written by associates, managers and executives alike. They should sound professional and contain no grammatical errors.
Letter of Intent
1. A letter of intent spells out in detail the circumstances under which an agreement between the writer and the reader would be made. It is not a contract; it merely states the intent to enter an agreement.
Sales Letter
2. Written to persuade the recipient to buy a product or service, sales letters are usually a part of a direct-mail marketing campaign and often are accompanied by packets, brochures, illustrations and/or catalogs.
Information Request Letter
3. In an information request letter, the writer requests information and explains why he needs it and/or how it will be used.
Information Response Letter
4. An information response letter is written in response to a request. Its purpose is to answer questions or provide requested information. It also may promote the business's products or services.
Customer Claim Response Letter
5. In a customer claim response letter, the writer attempts to rectify the complaint spelled out in the customer's claim letter. It should regain the recipient's confidence in the business and promote it.
Order Request Letter
6. An order request is a letter in which a purchase is authorized. It lists the items being ordered vertically and typically includes the quantity, order number, description and unit price of each item.

God (Part Five)

Arguments for Atheism

Though the history of the philosophy of religion has been dominated by attempts to prove the existence of God, there also exist a number of arguments that seek to disprove theism. These range from a priori arguments that the concept of God is logically incoherent, to a posteriori arguments that the world is not the way that it would be if God existed. The atheistic proofs section surveys these arguments for atheism.
Arguments for Atheism

Within the Arguments for Atheism section, the arguments are arranged under the following headings: The Presumption of Atheism, The Problem of Evil, Problems with Divine Omnipotence (including the paradox of the stone), Problems with Divine Omniscience, Problems with Divine Justice, Problems with Immortality, Problems with Original Sin, Problems with Petitionary Prayer, The Argument from Autonomy, The Psychogenesis of Religion, and Religion and Memetics.
The Presumption of Atheism

Atheists often suggest that theirs is the default position, that there is a presumption of atheism. This places the burden of proof on the theist; if the theist is unable to make a persuasive case for the existence of God, then the atheist is justified in his atheism. The case for the presumption of atheism may be made in two ways, one resulting in a presumption of weak atheism, and the other in a presumption of strong atheism.
The Problem of Evil

The problem of evil is the problem of reconciling the existence of an omniscient, omnipotent and benevolent God with the existence of a world full of evil and suffering. If God is omniscient then he knows how to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering. If God is omnipotent then he is able to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering. If God is benevolent then he wants to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering. But if God knows how to, is able to and wants to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering, then why does he not do so? The simplest answer is that God does not do so because he does not exist. This is by far the most popular argument for atheism.
Problems With Divine Omnipotence

The doctrine of divine omnipotence is the doctrine that God is all-powerful. It is sometimes argued, however, that the concept of omnipotence is paradoxical, logically incoherent, and so that it is logically impossible that there be any being that is omnipotent. This position, if it can be sustained, precludes the existence of God.
Problems with Divine Omniscience

The doctrine of divine omniscience is the doctrine that God is all-knowing. The doctrine of divine omniscience, though, faces several objections; there are a number of philosophical arguments that purport to demonstrate that God cannot possibly know everything. These include arguments that the doctrine of divine omniscience is logically incoherent, that it is inconsistent with the further Christian doctrine of divine impeccability (i.e. the doctrine that God cannot sin), and that it is refuted by the fact of human freedom. If any of these arguments is successful, then there can be no omniscient God.
Problems with Divine Justice

The doctrine of divine justice is also subject to criticism. First of all, it appears to conflict with the idea that God is forgiving. A just God sees that each person gets what he or she deserves; a forgiving God sees that some people’s sins go unpunished, that some people don’t get what they deserve. Second, the Christian view of heaven and hell appear in many ways to be unjust. Hell, for instance, appears to inflict an infinitely great punishment upon those who are sent there. How, though, can any finite sin deserve infinite punishment? Just punishments and rewards are proportionate to the badness or goodness of the person that deserves them. Heaven and hell though, are all or nothing, and so cannot be just.
Problems with Immortality

Even if we can make sense of the justice of heaven and hell, there remains a further problem: immortality. Death, by definition, involves the destruction of a person; if a person is not destroyed by death then they did not die. Once destroyed, though, it is unclear whether a person can be recreated. It is possible, no doubt, for there to be a subsequent person, like them in every respect, but there is no reason to think that that will be the very same person that died, rather than merely a replica of them.
Problems with Petitionary Prayer

A further doctrinal problem with Christianity concerns petitionary prayer, prayer in which we request (petition) that God do something for us. God’s omniscience implies that he will already have taken all of the information about our needs and desires into account when deciding what to do. His benevolence implies that he will act in our best interests unless there is a good reason not to (and if there is such a reason, our prayers will not remove it). Prayer, then, should never change God’s mind; petitionary prayer should never work.
The Argument from Autonomy

The argument from autonomy is the argument that the existence of morally autonomous agents is inconsistent with the existence of God, and so that the fact that morally autonomous agents do exist disproves the existence of God. God, if he exists, is worthy of worship. If a being is truly worthy of worship, though, then he is entitled to our unconditional obedience. Moral agents, however, cannot be required to give unconditional obedience to any agent. Moral agency requires autonomy, and so the idea of a moral duty to give up one’s autonomy is incoherent; in giving up one’s autonomy one would cease to be a moral agent so would cease to have moral duties at all. We cannot, therefore, have a duty of unconditional obedience to any agent, and there therefore cannot be any agent that worthy of worship. There can therefore be no God.
The Psychogenesis of Religion

The psychology of religion seeks to explain how patterns of thought in the human mind give rise to religious belief, to give a naturalistic account of religion based on human psychology. Psychology is thus used to explain away religious belief. The most influential critics of religion to have used this approach are Ludwig Feuerbach and Sigmund Freud.
Religion and Memetics

A final critique of religion comes from the field of memetics, and the suggestion that there is a God meme. Memetics seeks to apply the theory of evolution not to biological organisms but to ideas. Ideas, like animals, replicate themselves and compete for survival. The same process of natural selection that ensures that only the fittest animals survive will therefore also ensure that only the fittest ideas survive. Fitness of ideas, though, need not be a guide to truth; fitness is simply the ability to survive and reproduce. If the memetic critique of religion is right, then the success of religion can be fully explained by its preference of faith to reason, and its emphasis on evangelism.

God (Part Four)

The Argument from Incomprehensibility

There is a strong theistic tradition that holds that our ability to comprehend God is limited. Our concepts are derived from our experiences, and our experiences are of flawed and finite existence; we therefore lack the conceptual tools necessary to understand what God is really like. God is incomprehensible to us.

According to this tradition, when we apply our human concepts to God, describing him in terms that we have derived from our experience of the world, we must take great care. For God is neither flawed nor finite, and so our standard categories of thought do not apply to him. When we say that God is good, for example, we must remember that divine goodness is not the same thing as human goodness. Because God’s being transcends our experiences of the mundane, he transcends our understanding, and we can describe him only in borrowed language which fails to accurately describe him.

In stressing God’s incomprehensibility, the distance between his being and our categories of thought, this tradition gives ammunition to the agnostic. To the extent that God is beyond our understanding, knowledge of God is presumably also beyond our understanding. The greater the distance between God and that which we have known, the more difficult it will be to answer the question as to whether or not God exists. If God is truly incomprehensible, then how can we affirm either theism or atheism?

Blaise Pascal, famous for his pragmatic argument for belief in God, Pascal’s Wager, offered an argument for agnosticism along these lines. Though Pascal thought that belief in God was justified because it is in our interests, he thought it impossible to establish God’s existence by reason.

Pascal first argued for agnosticism concerning God’s nature:

“We know that there is an infinite, and are ignorant of its nature. As we know it to be false that numbers are finite, it is therefore true that there is an infinity in number. But we do not know what it is. It is false that it is even, it is false that it is odd; for the addition of a unit can make no change in its nature. Yet it is a number, and every number is odd or even (this is certainly true of every finite number). So we may well know that there is a God without knowing what He is. Is there not one substantial truth, seeing there are so many things which are not the truth itself?” [Blaise Pascal, Pensées, Section III]

Having argued that we cannot know God’s nature, Pascal then argued that this agnosticism should be extended to the question of God’s existence:

“We know then the existence and nature of the finite, because we also are finite and have extension. We know the existence of the infinite and are ignorant of its nature, because it has extension like us, but not limits like us. But we know neither the existence nor the nature of God, because He has neither extension nor limits.” [Blaise Pascal, Pensées, Section III]

This argument for agnosticism is, of course, ultimately set aside by Pascal. We can, he suggests, believe in God’s existence by faith, and we can be justified in our faith on pragmatic grounds. Nevertheless, his argument that our finitude prevents us from knowing of God’s existence is independent of his pragmatic argument for belief in God, and is the kind of argument that underpins much agnosticism.

God (Part Three)

The Argument from Uncertainty

Many describe themselves as agnostics because they believe that certain knowledge is impossible in religious matters. Whatever evidence there might be for or against the existence of God, both God’s existence and God’s non-existence remain conceivable. If we form a belief on uncertain evidence then we might turn out to be wrong. It is therefore better for us to withhold our judgement, to remain agnostic.

This argument is not especially persuasive. Though it is plausible to think that we cannot ever attain certainty as to whether or not God exists, this is true of all matters; nothing can be proved beyond all doubt. Descartes’ argument from error establishes this: I have made errors of reasoning in the past, even concerning simple matters, and so can on no occasion be certain that I am not in error again. In spite of this unavoidable uncertainty, we nevertheless form beliefs. Why should we not do the same in matters of religion?

A more subtle version of the argument from uncertainty has an answer to this question: because religion is so important. Religion matters, and that is why we ought to be particularly careful in forming our religious beliefs.

The more important it is to be right about a matter, the more cautious we should be in forming our beliefs. If a matter is of great importance, as religion is, then our evidential standards concerning it should be set high, we should demand strong evidence before settling on what we believe.

In fact, religion is of unquantifiable importance—there is nothing more important than being right about the question of God’s existence—and we should therefore set our evidential standards infinitely high.

If this is correct, then the standard of evidence required for justified religious belief is so high that it can never be satisfied; we can never have enough evidence to form beliefs about such questions as whether God exists. In this way, the importance of religion works to suggest that we can never have religious knowledge, that we ought to remain agnostic.

God (Part Two)

Arguments for Agnosticism

Agnosticism is the view that knowledge of whether or not God exists is unattainable, that we cannot be justified in believing either that God does exist or that he does not. There are two approaches to arguing for this view: first, it can be argued that knowledge of God’s existence is unattainable because no evidence could ever justify religious belief; second, it can be argued that knowledge of God’s existence is unattainable because evidence of God’s existence is unattainable. One argument of each kind is considered here.
The Argument from Uncertainty

The argument from uncertainty takes the fact that we cannot achieve certainty as to whether God exists as justification for agnosticism. Whatever evidence there is for theism and for atheism is fallible, the argument suggests, and therefore ought to be rejected. Of course, we accept fallible evidence as sufficient justification for many of our beliefs, so this argument will only be persuasive if there is some reason to require better evidence when answering religious questions than we require in these other cases. One possible reason for so doing is the importance of being right concerning the existence of God.
The Argument from Incomprehensibility

An alternative approach to arguing for agnosticism is the argument from incomprehensibility. Theists have often been content to say that we are unable to comprehend God, that his being transcends our mundane experiences and that our concepts, which are derived from such experiences, cannot be used to describe him. If true, then this might be thought to count in favour of agnosticism; if we cannot comprehend God, then how can we reason with any confidence concerning his existence?