English Department
State Polytechnics of Padang
Communication Skills Mid-Term Test
4th of May 2011
Yohannes Telaumbanua
A. Read and Answer the following question thoroughly and correctly!
Explain the answers with your own!
1. What are communication skills?
2. Why Are Communication Skills Important?
3. Are communication skills necessary?
B. Choose the best and the correct answer from one out of the three choices provided below!
1. When conversing with others,
A. I usually do most of the talking.
B. I usually let the other person do most of the talking.
C. I try to equalize my participation in the conversation.
2. When I first meet someone,
A. I wait for the other person to make the introduction first.
B. I introduce myself with a smile and offer a handshake.
C. When I first meet someone, I hug the person.
3. I usually,
A. "warm-up" new conversations with small talk.
B. I usually avoid small talk and jump into more important matters.
C. I usually avoid starting conversations.
4. I usually,
A. Make an effort to remember and use peoples' names.
B. Don't pay attention to names as I tend to forget them.
C. Only learn the names of important people.
5. I_________ use courtesy words and phrases - "Please," "Thank you," "You’re welcome," "I'm sorry."
A. Frequently
B. Occasionally
C. Never
6. I tend to
A. to be serious and don't smile often while conversing.
B. Smile all the time while conversing.
C. Smile at appropriate times while conversing.
7. I ________make eye contact while conversing.
A. Always.
B. Sometimes.
C. Never.
8. While conversing,
A. I hold my head still at all times.
B. I nod my head at appropriate times.
C. I nod my head constantly.
9. While conversing,
A. I stand one-foot away from the person.
B. I stand two- to three-feet away from the person.
C. I stand five- to six-feet away from the person.
10. I often,
A. Stand while talking to a person who is sitting.
B. Sit while talking to a person who is sitting.
C. Lean down while talking to a person who is sitting.
11. To end a conversation,
A. I often just leave.
B. I begin to look impatient hoping the person will get the hint.
C. I wrap up with a closing statement.
12. If a co-worker has put on weigh
A. I say nothing about it.
B. I tell the person that he or she has changed in appearance.
C. I honestly tell the person that he or she looks fat.
13. When I'm listening to the speaker
A. I often cross my arms over my chest.
B. I often lean back and turn my body away from the speaker.
C. I often lean slightly forward and face my body toward the speaker.
14. When I cross my leg
A. I cross my leg facing the speaker.
B. I cross my leg away from the speaker.
C. I bob my foot.
15. While listening,
A. I tend to be distracted by things going on around me.
B. I listen for meaning and ask questions.
C. I watch the person speak, but I don't "hear" a word.
16. When someone talks about an unfortunate or sad experience
A. I don't comment about it.
B. I try to change the subject.
C., I try to relate to the person's feelings and show sensitivity to his or her misfortune.
17. When I discuss a topic
A. I tend to talk about and focus on positive (good) aspects.
B. I tend to talk about and focus on the negative (bad) aspects.
C., I tend to complain.
18. When I have a negative opinion or comment
A. I just say it.
B. I lead in with a positive comment first.
C. I say nothing.
19. When I receive unfavorable feedback
A. I note where I need to improve.
B. I get angry and defensive.
C. I deny the problem, make excuses, or plead ignorance.
20. When I give a person negative feedback
A. I focus on the person's observable work or behavior and offer suggestions.
B. When I give a person negative feedback, I focus on what I don't like about the person.
C. I simply tell the person what to do right.
21. When I give a person negative feedback,
A. I do it around others so everyone can hear.
B. I do it in front of the supervisor.
C. I talk with the person alone in a private place.
22. When I disagree with a person,
A. I listen first, ask questions for clarification, then disagree non-judgmentally.
B. I quickly point out the person is wrong and why.
C. When I disagree with a person, I say little or nothing.
23. When I'm in a group,
A. I tend to frown a lot.
B. I tend to smile and use humor at appropriate times.
C. I tend to be serious.
24. This last item has four choices (A, B, C or D). Which one best describes you?
A. I'm a "hands-on" person. I tend to:
prefer hands-on experiences and activities;
focus on tasks to be done;
refrain from discussions;
think in a logical and organized way;
do things in an orderly way;
have difficulty adjusting to change.
B. I'm a "thinker." I tend to:
enjoy listening to a logical presentation of ideas;
enjoy analyzing problems and finding systematic ways to solve problems;
enjoy creating models based on theory and information;
like structure and organization;
act slowly in making decisions;
show more interest in ideas than people.
C. I'm an "explorer." I tend to:
try things by trial and error;
explore practical uses for ideas and theories;
make decisions that provide quick solutions;
decide quickly;
take risks;
enjoy change;
rely more on people for information.
D. I'm a "free thinker." I tend to:
base views and opinions on feelings;
enjoy tossing around ideas (brainstorming);
approach and view problems and experiences from different perspectives;
rely on intuition, not logic, for making decisions;
dislike structure.
Good Luck
Selasa, 03 Mei 2011
Rabu, 05 Januari 2011
Business Letter (II A Regular AN)
Business letter
A commercial business letter is a letter written in formal language, usually used when writing from one business organization to another, or for correspondence between such organizations and their customers, clients and other external parties. The overall style of letter will depend on the relationship between the parties concerned.
• 1 Types of Letter
o 1.1 Letter of Inquiry
• 2 General Format
o 2.1 Elements
o 2.2 Line Spacing
o 2.3 Font Formatting
o 2.4 Punctuation
o 2.5 Example Template
• 3 Indentation Formats
o 3.1 Block
o 3.2 Semi-Block
o 3.3 Modified Block
o 3.4 Modified Semi-Block
Types of Letter
Letter of Inquiry
A letter of inquiry is a general term used for a number of different kinds of business letters addressed to a company.
General Format
There are two main styles of business letters:
1. Full block style: Align all elements on the left margin.
• This example is personal business; as a result, it's written from me (Nicholas Strachan) using my (fictional) home address on Laurier Avenue in Ottawa.
• If the letter was about company business, I'd use my company letterhead.
1385 Laurier Avenue
Ottawa, Ontario K2G 1V8
January 6, 2011
James Moore, Human Resources Manager
Global Market Incorporated (Inc.)
45 Spadina Avenue
Toronto, Ontario M5W 1E5
Dear Mr. Moore:
This is semi-block letter format.
It too begins with the sender’s address, the date, the receiver’s name and address, and then the opening salutation. The difference between full-block and semi block is easy:
• In full-block format, nothing is indented.
• In semi-block format, the sender’s address, date and closing salutation are indented.
• In semi-block format, it is also permissible to indent the paragraphs, but it is not necessary to do so.
If you have questions about this format, please email me.
Sincerely,
Nicholas Strachan
Nicholas Strachan
Full-Block Format Letter
1 1/2 inch margin
Company Logo or Letterhead (kop surat)
6-10 spaces
<- 1 1/4 inch margin ->
March 15, 2001
2-4 spaces
Mr. John Smith, Director of Operations
SomeGroup Group
SomeStreet Drive
Sometown, VA 12345
2 spaces
Dear Mr. Smith:
2 spaces
Thank you for your inquiry about Full-Block format for letters. What follows is a quick summary of the format and the conventions it uses.
Full block format is considered the most formal of the three styles. In full block format or style, every line is left justified. The dateline is placed two to six line spaces below the last line of the heading or letterhead. The inside address placement varies depending upon the length of the letter. A common spacing is four line spaces below the date line. The salutation is placed two lines below the attention line (if an attention line is provided). The first line of the body is placed two lines below an attention line or two to four lines below the last inside address line. When using full block, paragraphs are single spaced, with a double space between paragraphs.
While there are no set rules governing format use, full block is generally used for (1) requests or inquiries, (2) claims, (3) announcements, (4) records of agreement, (5) transmittal of other technical documents, and (6) job applications. Most other types of letters use semi-block or simplified format. This page illustrates the spacing and layout of full block format.
2 spaces
Sincerely yours ,
4 spaces
Dr. Sheila Carter-Tod
English Instructor
2 spaces
CC Notation
2 spaces
Enclosure
1 1/2 inch margin
Semi-Block Format Letter
1 1/2 inch margin
Company Logo or Letterhead
6-10 spaces
<- 1 1/4 inch margin ->
March 15, 2001
2-4 spaces
Mr. John Smith, Director of Operations
SomeGroup Group
SomeStreet Drive
Sometown, VA 12345
2 spaces
Dear Mr. Smith :
2 spaces
Thank you for your inquiry about Semi-Block format for letters. What follows is a quick summary of the format and the conventions it uses.
Semi-block format or style is frequently called modified semi-block because it is a slightly less formal modification of full block format. This letter style places the date line in alignment with, or slightly to the right of dead center. Another option for placing the date line in semi-block is flush right. Similar to full block, semi-block places the inside address, salutation and any end notations flush with the left margin. However, unlike full block, each body paragraph of semi-block is indented five spaces. The complimentary close and signature block are aligned under the date.
This page illustrates the spacing and layout of semi-block format. Both full block and semi-block formats generally contain all of the necessary parts of a letter.
2 spaces
Sincerely yours,
4 spaces
Dr. Sheila Carter-Tod
English Instructor
2 spaces
SCT/jm
2 spaces
Enclosure
1 1/2 inch margin
Semi-Block Format Letter
1 1/2 inch margin
Company Logo or Letterhead
6-10 spaces
<- 1 1/4 inch margin ->
March 15, 2001
2-4 spaces
Mr. John Smith, Director of Operations
SomeGroup Group
SomeStreet Drive
Sometown, VA 12345
2 spaces
SIMPLIFIED FORMAT LETTERS
2 spaces
Thank you for your inquiry about Simplified format for letters. What follows is a quick summary of the format and the conventions it uses.
Simplified format or style unlike full block and semi-block has fewer internal parts. This format is also the most widely used format in professional correspondence. Simplified format is focused and professional without unnecessary formality. Simplified format places all internal parts in left alignment; however, the traditional salutation is replaced with an all-caps subject line that is also placed flush with the left margin. Body paragraphs are left aligned and single spaced within and double spaced between. In simplified style, the writer's name and title, if necessary, are aligned with the left margin and typed in all caps at least five spaces below the last line of the body or message of the letter.
This page illustrates the spacing and layout of simplified format. Both full block and semi-block formats generally contain all of the necessary parts of a letter.
2 spaces
Sincerely yours,
5 spaces
DR. SHEILA CARTER-TOD
ENGLISH INSTRUCTOR
2 spaces
SCT/jm
2 spaces
Enclosure
1 1/2 inch margin
2. Modified block style: Down the middle of the page, align the return address, date, closing, signature, and typed name; align other elements on the left page margin.
Sample Business Letters
Modified Block Style Business Letter Components
Parts of a Business Letter
1. Return Address: If your stationery has a letterhead, skip this. Otherwise, type your name, address and optionally, phone number, five spaces to the right of center or flush with the right margin. Five spaces to the right of center is common. These days, it's also common to include an email address.
2. Date: Type the date five spaces to the right of center or flush with the right margin, two to six lines below the letterhead. Five spaces to the right of center and three lines below the letterhead are common. If there is no letterhead, type it where shown.
3. Reference Line: If the recipient specifically requests information, such as a job reference or invoice number, type it on one or two lines, immediately below and aligned with the Date (2). If you're replying to a letter, refer to it here. For example,
• Re: Job # 625-01
• Re: Your letter dated 1/1/200x.
4. Special Mailing Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if appropriate. Examples include
• SPECIAL DELIVERY
• CERTIFIED MAIL
• AIRMAIL
5. On-Arrival Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if appropriate. You might want to include a notation on private correspondence, such as a resignation letter. Include the same on the envelope. Examples are
• PERSONAL
• CONFIDENTIAL
6. Inside Address: Type the name and address of the person and/or company to whom you're sending the letter, three to eight lines below the last component you typed. Four lines are standard. If you type an Attention Line (7), skip the person's name here. Do the same on the envelope.
7. Attention Line: Type the name of the person to whom you're sending the letter. If you type the person's name in the Inside Address (6), skip this. Do the same on the envelope.
8. Salutation: Type the recipient's name here. Type Mr. or Ms. [Last Name] to show respect, but don't guess spelling or gender. Some common salutations are
• Ladies:
• Gentlemen:
• Dear Sir:
• Dear Sir or Madam:
• Dear [Full Name]:
• To Whom it May Concern:
9. Subject Line: Type the gist of your letter in all uppercase characters. Be concise on one line. If you type a Reference Line (3), consider if you really need this line. While it's not really necessary for most employment-related letters, examples are below.
• SUBJECT: RESIGNATION
• LETTER OF REFERENCE
• JOB INQUIRY
10. Body: Type two spaces between sentences. Keep it brief and to the point.
11. Complimentary Close: Type this aligned with the Date (2). What you type here depends on the tone and degree of formality. For example,
• Respectfully yours (very formal)
• Sincerely (typical, less formal)
• Very truly yours (polite, neutral)
• Cordially yours (friendly, informal)
12. Signature Block: Align this with the Complimentary Close (11). Leave four blank lines to sign your name. Sign it exactly the same as you typed it below your signature. Title is optional depending on relevancy and degree of formality. Examples are
• John Doe, Manager
• P. Smith
Director, Technical Support
• R. T. Jones - Sr. Field Engineer
13. Identification Initials: If someone typed the letter for you, he or she would typically include three of your initials in all uppercase characters, then two of his or hers in all lowercase characters. If you typed your own letter, just skip it since your name is already in the Signature Block (12). Common styles are below.
• JAD/cm
• JAD:cm
• clm
14. Enclosure Notation: This line tells the reader to look in the envelope for more. Type the singular for only one enclosure, plural for more. If you don't enclose anything, skip it. Common styles are below.
• Enclosure
• Enclosures: 3
• Enclosures (3)
15. cc: Stands for courtesy copies (formerly carbon copies). List the names of people to whom you distribute copies, in alphabetical order. If addresses would be useful to the recipient of the letter, include them. If you don't copy your letter to anyone, skip it.
Tips:
• Replace the text in brackets [ ] with the component indicated. Don't type the brackets.
• Try to keep your letters to one page, but see page 2 of this sample if you need continuation pages.
• How many blank lines you add between lines that require more than one, depends on how much space is available on the page.
• The same goes for margins. One and one-half inch (108 points) for short letters and one inch (72 points) for longer letters are standard. If there is a letterhead, its position determines the top margin on page 1.
• If you don't type one of the more formal components, don't leave space for them. For example, if you don't type the Reference Line (3), Special Mailing Notations (4) and On-Arrival Notations (5), type the Inside Address (6) four lines below the Date (2).
MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE LETTERS
LONGHURST INSTRUCTIONS
MODIFIED BLOCK LETTER
LONGHURST LETTER
DIRECTIONS:
Type the letter to Ms. Longhurst in MODIFIED BLOCK style with paragraphs indented. Use MIXED PUNCTUATION.
Remember: MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE MEANS THAT THE DATE IS CENTERED, AND THE SIGNATURE BLOCK IS AT THE CENTER OF THE PAPER--NOT CENTERED. (Do not hit CTRL-E, but tab over to the center.)
IN MODIFIED BLOCK, THE PARAGRAPHS CAN BE INDENTED BUT DON'T HAVE TO BE.
MIXED PUNCTUATION MEANS THERE IS A COLON AFTER THE SALUTATION AND A COMMA AFTER THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE.
1. Type the Heading or Letterhead in the center using a fancy font that looks nice. The company name needs to be in a larger font than the address.
HENSON AND SONS, 3325 W. 220 S., Springville, UT 81637
2. Space down 2-3 lines and type the current date in the center of the paper. It usually looks best if it is centered under the heading.
3. Quadruple space between the date and the Inside Address.
Inside Address: Ms. Sandra Longhurst, Production Manager, Alpha Products, Inc., 330 Brisbane Way, Decatur, IL 10287
4. Double space after the Inside Address and type the Salutation--Dear Ms. Longhurst Since this is MIXED PUNCTUATION, you will type a colon after the Salutation.
5. Double space after the Salutation and type the Body of the letter singled spaced with double spaces between paragraphs.
BODY OF LETTER
We would like to thank you for the high quality rugs that we recently received from your company. We were not only impressed with the manufacturing but with the beautiful colors. We tested the quality and color durability of one of these rugs by washing it 20 times. We are very happy to report that the colors did not fade, and the rug looked just like new after repeated washings.
Of course, we were extremely happy about the prices of these rugs. We are able to offer them to our customers at a 25% savings over the rugs we formerly bought from one of your competitors.
Our best news, however, is how the customers have received these rugs. We have heard nothing but compliments from them. The rugs quickly sold out, and we are impatiently waiting for our second--and much larger--shipment from you.
Keep up the good work. We look forward to many years of business with you.
6. Double space after the body and type the Complimentary Close--Sincerely Yours-- in the center of the page--use the tab key to get to center. Since this is MIXED PUNCTUATION, you will follow the Complimentary Close with a comma.
7. Quadruple space after the Complimentary Close and type the person's name who wrote the letter--Helen Wise. This should start at the center directly under the Complimentary Close.
Example:
Sincerely yours,
Helen Wise (put this directly under Sincerely)
8. Single space after the name and type the writer's position--President-also tabbed to the center.
9. Double space and type your initials for the Reference Initials in lower case letters at the left margin.
10. Make sure you type your name and Longhurst at the bottom of the letter.
11. Save in your Word Processing folder under Longhurst. Print. Do not close.
MODIFIED BLOCK LETTER 2
LONGHURST LETTER 2
1. Now change the LONGHURST letter to OPEN PUNCTUATION with no paragraphs indented. Keep it in MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE.
2. Resave it under Longhurst2.
3. At the bottom, label your letter LONGHURST2 and print.
MAKE SURE YOU SIGN EACH LETTER WITH THE WRITER'S NAME AFTER YOU HAVE PRINTED IT.
LONGHURST RUBRICS
DECKER INSTRUCTIONS
MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE
GRADY DECKER LETTER
Format: Modified Block; paragraphs not indented
Punctuation: Mixed
Save as: Decker
Letterhead: Western Business Machines, 204 Ontario Drive, Portland, OR 21902
Date: Use current date
Mr. Grady M. Decker/AFT Laboratories/407 Groton Street/Hartford, CT 06106
Dear Mr. Decker
Because I have worked previously with a company similar to yours, Lehman asked me to respond to your inquiry about typing letters in the modified block style.
This letter, Mr. Decker, is an example of one that has been typed in modified block style without indented paragraphs. Notice that all lines except the date and complimentary close are “blocked;” that is, they begin at the left margin. However, a modified block letter may have the paragraphs indented.
The spacing between parts of business letters is standard and should be carefully observed. Notice the placement of this average length letter. For a short or long letter, the date is raised or lowered and the length of writing line changed.
I am happy to enclose our booklet on the subject of letter styles and special features of business letters.
Sincerely yours
(Your Name)
Consultant
df
Enclosure
DECKER RUBRIC
Elements
Business letters (in the United States) usually contain the following elements, in order:
• Sender's address & contact information
• Date of writing
• Recipient's name, title, company, & address
• Salutation/greeting
• Subject
• Message (body of the letter)
• Valediction/closing
• Sender's signature
• Sender's name, title, company
In some situations, a business letter may also include the following optional information:
• Enclosures (Encl.: or Enc.:)
• Carbon Copy Recipients (cc:)
• Reference Initials (of the typist, if different from original author of letter)
Line Spacing
In general, each element or paragraph of the letter is followed by a single blank line, except:
• the date, followed by three or four blank lines;
• the final content paragraph, followed by two blank lines;
• the valediction/closing, followed by three or four blank lines (enough for the sender to sign the letter); and
• the sender's title, followed by two blank lines.
Font Formatting
No special character or font formatting is used, except for the subject line, which is usually underlined
Punctuation
The salutation/greeting is generally followed by a comma, although in the United States a colon is often preferred. The valediction/closing is followed by a comma.
Example Template
[SENDER'S NAME]
[SENDER'S ADDRESS]
(optional[SENDER'S PHONE]
(optional[SENDER'S E-MAIL]
[DATE]
[RECIPIENT W/O PREFIX]
[RECIPIENT'S TITLE]
[RECIPIENT'S COMPANY]
[RECIPIENT'S ADDRESS]
(Optional) Attention [DEPARTMENT/PERSON],
Dear [RECIPIENT W/ PREFIX]:
Re: [SUBJECT] [First Salutation then Subject in Business letters]
[CONTENT.]
[CONTENT.]
[VALEDICTION (Sincerely, Respectfully, Regards, etc.)],
[SENDER]
[SENDER'S TITLE]
Enclosures ([NUMBER OF ENCLOSURES])
cc: [CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]
[CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]
Indentation Formats
Business letters generally conform to one of four indentation formats: Block, Semi-Block, Modified Block, and Modified Semi-Block. Put simply, "Semi-" means that the first lines of paragraphs are indented; "Modified" means that the sender's address, date, and closing are significantly indented.
Block
In a Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are not indented. 3) parts and paragraphs are separated by double or triple spacing.
Semi-Block
In a Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are indented.
Modified Block
In a Modified Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are not indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented three inches from the left margin, but can be set anywhere to the right of the middle of the page, as long as all three elements are indented to the same position.
Modified Semi-Block
In a Modified Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented by: Richard Babon
Guide to Basic Business Letters
The basics of good business letter writing are easy to learn. The following guide provides the phrases that are usually found in any standard business letter. These phrases are used as a kind of frame and introduction to the content of business letters. At the end of this guide, you will find links to sites that give tips on the difficult part of writing successful business letters – arguing your business objective. By using these standard phrases, you can give a professional tone to your English business letters.
The Start
1. Dear Personnel Director,
2. Dear Sir or Madam: (use if you don't know who you are writing to)
3. Dear Dr, Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms Smith: (use if you know who you are writing to, and have a formal relationship with - VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss)
4. Dear Frank: (use if the person is a close business contact or friend)
The Reference
1. With reference to your advertisement in the Times, your letter of 23 rd March,
your phone call today,
2. Thank you for your letter of March 5 th .
The Reason for Writing
1. I am writing to inquire about…
…apologizing for
…I am confirming that
Requesting
1. Could you possibly?
2. I would be grateful if you could…
Agreeing to Requests
1. I would be delighted to…
Giving Bad News
1. Unfortunately…
2. I am afraid that…
Enclosing Documents
1. I am enclosing…
2. Please find enclosed…
3. Enclosed you will find…
Closing Remarks
1. Thank you for your help Please contact us again if we can help in any way.
…There are any problems…(or)
…you have any questions…
Reference to Future Contact
1. I look forward to ...
…hearing from you soon.
…meeting you next Tuesday.
…seeing you next Thursday.
The Finish
1. Yours faithfully, … (If you don't know the name of the person you're writing to)
2. Yours sincerely, … (If you know the name of the person you're writing to)
3. Best wishes, …
4. Best regards, … (If the person is a close business contact or friend)
Sample Letter
Here is a sample letter using some of these forms:
Ken's Cheese House
34 Chatley Avenue
Seattle, WA 98765
Tel:
Fax:
Email: kenny@cheese.com
October 23, 2006
Fred Flintstone
Sales Manager
Cheese Specialists Inc.
456 Rubble Road
Rockville, IL
Dear Mr Flintstone:
With reference to our telephone conversation today, I am writing to confirm your order for: 120 x Cheddar Deluxe Ref. No. 856
The order will be shipped within three days via UPS and should arrive at your store in about 10 days.
Please contact us again if we can help in any way.
Yours sincerely,
Kenneth Beare
Director of Ken's Cheese House
How to Write a Formal Business Letter
The business-letter format is very important for communicating formally with a company. You shouldn't write in the same voice as when you write family or friends, a business letter needs to be more formal. These steps describe the full block format, in which all lines start at the left.
Instructions
Things you will need:
Envelopes
Computers
Printers
Printer Paper
Postage Stamps
1. Type the letter using a word processor. Formal letters should not be written by hand.
2. Use your own letterhead. If you don't have letterhead, use formal, 8 1/2-inch-by-11-inch stationery with a matching envelope. Avoid store-bought note cards.
3. If you don't have preprinted letterhead, type your name, title and return address four to six lines down from the top of the page.
4. Type the date two to six lines down from the letterhead or return address. Three lines below is the standard.
5. Choose your alignment: left aligned or justified on both sides.
6. Skip two lines and type the recipient's full name, business title and address, aligned at the left margin. Precede the name with Mr., Ms. or Dr. as appropriate.
7. Skip two to four lines and follow with your greeting, again using the formal name and closing with a colon "Dear Mr. Jones:" for example.
8. Skip two more lines and begin your letter. Introduce yourself in the first paragraph, if the recipient does not already know you. Examples: 'We recently met at a seminar at the Biltmore' or 'I recently purchased an insurance plan from your company.'
9. Continue with the body of the letter, stating your main purpose for writing. This may be to lodge a complaint, compliment the business on its products or services, or request information. Be as brief and concise as possible.
10. Skip two lines and conclude the letter with 'Sincerely,' 'Thank you' or 'Best wishes,' followed by a comma.
11. Leave at least four blank lines for your signature, then type your name and title. Sign the letter in ink in the space created.
Kinds of Business Letters
Business letters should sound professional and contain no grammatical errors.
Business letters can initiate communication with a prospect, a client or another business. They can also be written in response to a request. Written on company letterhead and following a block letter style, business letters may be written by associates, managers and executives alike. They should sound professional and contain no grammatical errors.
Letter of Intent
1. A letter of intent spells out in detail the circumstances under which an agreement between the writer and the reader would be made. It is not a contract; it merely states the intent to enter an agreement.
Sales Letter
2. Written to persuade the recipient to buy a product or service, sales letters are usually a part of a direct-mail marketing campaign and often are accompanied by packets, brochures, illustrations and/or catalogs.
Information Request Letter
3. In an information request letter, the writer requests information and explains why he needs it and/or how it will be used.
Information Response Letter
4. An information response letter is written in response to a request. Its purpose is to answer questions or provide requested information. It also may promote the business's products or services.
Customer Claim Response Letter
5. In a customer claim response letter, the writer attempts to rectify the complaint spelled out in the customer's claim letter. It should regain the recipient's confidence in the business and promote it.
Order Request Letter
6. An order request is a letter in which a purchase is authorized. It lists the items being ordered vertically and typically includes the quantity, order number, description and unit price of each item.
A commercial business letter is a letter written in formal language, usually used when writing from one business organization to another, or for correspondence between such organizations and their customers, clients and other external parties. The overall style of letter will depend on the relationship between the parties concerned.
• 1 Types of Letter
o 1.1 Letter of Inquiry
• 2 General Format
o 2.1 Elements
o 2.2 Line Spacing
o 2.3 Font Formatting
o 2.4 Punctuation
o 2.5 Example Template
• 3 Indentation Formats
o 3.1 Block
o 3.2 Semi-Block
o 3.3 Modified Block
o 3.4 Modified Semi-Block
Types of Letter
Letter of Inquiry
A letter of inquiry is a general term used for a number of different kinds of business letters addressed to a company.
General Format
There are two main styles of business letters:
1. Full block style: Align all elements on the left margin.
• This example is personal business; as a result, it's written from me (Nicholas Strachan) using my (fictional) home address on Laurier Avenue in Ottawa.
• If the letter was about company business, I'd use my company letterhead.
1385 Laurier Avenue
Ottawa, Ontario K2G 1V8
January 6, 2011
James Moore, Human Resources Manager
Global Market Incorporated (Inc.)
45 Spadina Avenue
Toronto, Ontario M5W 1E5
Dear Mr. Moore:
This is semi-block letter format.
It too begins with the sender’s address, the date, the receiver’s name and address, and then the opening salutation. The difference between full-block and semi block is easy:
• In full-block format, nothing is indented.
• In semi-block format, the sender’s address, date and closing salutation are indented.
• In semi-block format, it is also permissible to indent the paragraphs, but it is not necessary to do so.
If you have questions about this format, please email me.
Sincerely,
Nicholas Strachan
Nicholas Strachan
Full-Block Format Letter
1 1/2 inch margin
Company Logo or Letterhead (kop surat)
6-10 spaces
<- 1 1/4 inch margin ->
March 15, 2001
2-4 spaces
Mr. John Smith, Director of Operations
SomeGroup Group
SomeStreet Drive
Sometown, VA 12345
2 spaces
Dear Mr. Smith:
2 spaces
Thank you for your inquiry about Full-Block format for letters. What follows is a quick summary of the format and the conventions it uses.
Full block format is considered the most formal of the three styles. In full block format or style, every line is left justified. The dateline is placed two to six line spaces below the last line of the heading or letterhead. The inside address placement varies depending upon the length of the letter. A common spacing is four line spaces below the date line. The salutation is placed two lines below the attention line (if an attention line is provided). The first line of the body is placed two lines below an attention line or two to four lines below the last inside address line. When using full block, paragraphs are single spaced, with a double space between paragraphs.
While there are no set rules governing format use, full block is generally used for (1) requests or inquiries, (2) claims, (3) announcements, (4) records of agreement, (5) transmittal of other technical documents, and (6) job applications. Most other types of letters use semi-block or simplified format. This page illustrates the spacing and layout of full block format.
2 spaces
Sincerely yours ,
4 spaces
Dr. Sheila Carter-Tod
English Instructor
2 spaces
CC Notation
2 spaces
Enclosure
1 1/2 inch margin
Semi-Block Format Letter
1 1/2 inch margin
Company Logo or Letterhead
6-10 spaces
<- 1 1/4 inch margin ->
March 15, 2001
2-4 spaces
Mr. John Smith, Director of Operations
SomeGroup Group
SomeStreet Drive
Sometown, VA 12345
2 spaces
Dear Mr. Smith :
2 spaces
Thank you for your inquiry about Semi-Block format for letters. What follows is a quick summary of the format and the conventions it uses.
Semi-block format or style is frequently called modified semi-block because it is a slightly less formal modification of full block format. This letter style places the date line in alignment with, or slightly to the right of dead center. Another option for placing the date line in semi-block is flush right. Similar to full block, semi-block places the inside address, salutation and any end notations flush with the left margin. However, unlike full block, each body paragraph of semi-block is indented five spaces. The complimentary close and signature block are aligned under the date.
This page illustrates the spacing and layout of semi-block format. Both full block and semi-block formats generally contain all of the necessary parts of a letter.
2 spaces
Sincerely yours,
4 spaces
Dr. Sheila Carter-Tod
English Instructor
2 spaces
SCT/jm
2 spaces
Enclosure
1 1/2 inch margin
Semi-Block Format Letter
1 1/2 inch margin
Company Logo or Letterhead
6-10 spaces
<- 1 1/4 inch margin ->
March 15, 2001
2-4 spaces
Mr. John Smith, Director of Operations
SomeGroup Group
SomeStreet Drive
Sometown, VA 12345
2 spaces
SIMPLIFIED FORMAT LETTERS
2 spaces
Thank you for your inquiry about Simplified format for letters. What follows is a quick summary of the format and the conventions it uses.
Simplified format or style unlike full block and semi-block has fewer internal parts. This format is also the most widely used format in professional correspondence. Simplified format is focused and professional without unnecessary formality. Simplified format places all internal parts in left alignment; however, the traditional salutation is replaced with an all-caps subject line that is also placed flush with the left margin. Body paragraphs are left aligned and single spaced within and double spaced between. In simplified style, the writer's name and title, if necessary, are aligned with the left margin and typed in all caps at least five spaces below the last line of the body or message of the letter.
This page illustrates the spacing and layout of simplified format. Both full block and semi-block formats generally contain all of the necessary parts of a letter.
2 spaces
Sincerely yours,
5 spaces
DR. SHEILA CARTER-TOD
ENGLISH INSTRUCTOR
2 spaces
SCT/jm
2 spaces
Enclosure
1 1/2 inch margin
2. Modified block style: Down the middle of the page, align the return address, date, closing, signature, and typed name; align other elements on the left page margin.
Sample Business Letters
Modified Block Style Business Letter Components
Parts of a Business Letter
1. Return Address: If your stationery has a letterhead, skip this. Otherwise, type your name, address and optionally, phone number, five spaces to the right of center or flush with the right margin. Five spaces to the right of center is common. These days, it's also common to include an email address.
2. Date: Type the date five spaces to the right of center or flush with the right margin, two to six lines below the letterhead. Five spaces to the right of center and three lines below the letterhead are common. If there is no letterhead, type it where shown.
3. Reference Line: If the recipient specifically requests information, such as a job reference or invoice number, type it on one or two lines, immediately below and aligned with the Date (2). If you're replying to a letter, refer to it here. For example,
• Re: Job # 625-01
• Re: Your letter dated 1/1/200x.
4. Special Mailing Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if appropriate. Examples include
• SPECIAL DELIVERY
• CERTIFIED MAIL
• AIRMAIL
5. On-Arrival Notations: Type in all uppercase characters, if appropriate. You might want to include a notation on private correspondence, such as a resignation letter. Include the same on the envelope. Examples are
• PERSONAL
• CONFIDENTIAL
6. Inside Address: Type the name and address of the person and/or company to whom you're sending the letter, three to eight lines below the last component you typed. Four lines are standard. If you type an Attention Line (7), skip the person's name here. Do the same on the envelope.
7. Attention Line: Type the name of the person to whom you're sending the letter. If you type the person's name in the Inside Address (6), skip this. Do the same on the envelope.
8. Salutation: Type the recipient's name here. Type Mr. or Ms. [Last Name] to show respect, but don't guess spelling or gender. Some common salutations are
• Ladies:
• Gentlemen:
• Dear Sir:
• Dear Sir or Madam:
• Dear [Full Name]:
• To Whom it May Concern:
9. Subject Line: Type the gist of your letter in all uppercase characters. Be concise on one line. If you type a Reference Line (3), consider if you really need this line. While it's not really necessary for most employment-related letters, examples are below.
• SUBJECT: RESIGNATION
• LETTER OF REFERENCE
• JOB INQUIRY
10. Body: Type two spaces between sentences. Keep it brief and to the point.
11. Complimentary Close: Type this aligned with the Date (2). What you type here depends on the tone and degree of formality. For example,
• Respectfully yours (very formal)
• Sincerely (typical, less formal)
• Very truly yours (polite, neutral)
• Cordially yours (friendly, informal)
12. Signature Block: Align this with the Complimentary Close (11). Leave four blank lines to sign your name. Sign it exactly the same as you typed it below your signature. Title is optional depending on relevancy and degree of formality. Examples are
• John Doe, Manager
• P. Smith
Director, Technical Support
• R. T. Jones - Sr. Field Engineer
13. Identification Initials: If someone typed the letter for you, he or she would typically include three of your initials in all uppercase characters, then two of his or hers in all lowercase characters. If you typed your own letter, just skip it since your name is already in the Signature Block (12). Common styles are below.
• JAD/cm
• JAD:cm
• clm
14. Enclosure Notation: This line tells the reader to look in the envelope for more. Type the singular for only one enclosure, plural for more. If you don't enclose anything, skip it. Common styles are below.
• Enclosure
• Enclosures: 3
• Enclosures (3)
15. cc: Stands for courtesy copies (formerly carbon copies). List the names of people to whom you distribute copies, in alphabetical order. If addresses would be useful to the recipient of the letter, include them. If you don't copy your letter to anyone, skip it.
Tips:
• Replace the text in brackets [ ] with the component indicated. Don't type the brackets.
• Try to keep your letters to one page, but see page 2 of this sample if you need continuation pages.
• How many blank lines you add between lines that require more than one, depends on how much space is available on the page.
• The same goes for margins. One and one-half inch (108 points) for short letters and one inch (72 points) for longer letters are standard. If there is a letterhead, its position determines the top margin on page 1.
• If you don't type one of the more formal components, don't leave space for them. For example, if you don't type the Reference Line (3), Special Mailing Notations (4) and On-Arrival Notations (5), type the Inside Address (6) four lines below the Date (2).
MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE LETTERS
LONGHURST INSTRUCTIONS
MODIFIED BLOCK LETTER
LONGHURST LETTER
DIRECTIONS:
Type the letter to Ms. Longhurst in MODIFIED BLOCK style with paragraphs indented. Use MIXED PUNCTUATION.
Remember: MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE MEANS THAT THE DATE IS CENTERED, AND THE SIGNATURE BLOCK IS AT THE CENTER OF THE PAPER--NOT CENTERED. (Do not hit CTRL-E, but tab over to the center.)
IN MODIFIED BLOCK, THE PARAGRAPHS CAN BE INDENTED BUT DON'T HAVE TO BE.
MIXED PUNCTUATION MEANS THERE IS A COLON AFTER THE SALUTATION AND A COMMA AFTER THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE.
1. Type the Heading or Letterhead in the center using a fancy font that looks nice. The company name needs to be in a larger font than the address.
HENSON AND SONS, 3325 W. 220 S., Springville, UT 81637
2. Space down 2-3 lines and type the current date in the center of the paper. It usually looks best if it is centered under the heading.
3. Quadruple space between the date and the Inside Address.
Inside Address: Ms. Sandra Longhurst, Production Manager, Alpha Products, Inc., 330 Brisbane Way, Decatur, IL 10287
4. Double space after the Inside Address and type the Salutation--Dear Ms. Longhurst Since this is MIXED PUNCTUATION, you will type a colon after the Salutation.
5. Double space after the Salutation and type the Body of the letter singled spaced with double spaces between paragraphs.
BODY OF LETTER
We would like to thank you for the high quality rugs that we recently received from your company. We were not only impressed with the manufacturing but with the beautiful colors. We tested the quality and color durability of one of these rugs by washing it 20 times. We are very happy to report that the colors did not fade, and the rug looked just like new after repeated washings.
Of course, we were extremely happy about the prices of these rugs. We are able to offer them to our customers at a 25% savings over the rugs we formerly bought from one of your competitors.
Our best news, however, is how the customers have received these rugs. We have heard nothing but compliments from them. The rugs quickly sold out, and we are impatiently waiting for our second--and much larger--shipment from you.
Keep up the good work. We look forward to many years of business with you.
6. Double space after the body and type the Complimentary Close--Sincerely Yours-- in the center of the page--use the tab key to get to center. Since this is MIXED PUNCTUATION, you will follow the Complimentary Close with a comma.
7. Quadruple space after the Complimentary Close and type the person's name who wrote the letter--Helen Wise. This should start at the center directly under the Complimentary Close.
Example:
Sincerely yours,
Helen Wise (put this directly under Sincerely)
8. Single space after the name and type the writer's position--President-also tabbed to the center.
9. Double space and type your initials for the Reference Initials in lower case letters at the left margin.
10. Make sure you type your name and Longhurst at the bottom of the letter.
11. Save in your Word Processing folder under Longhurst. Print. Do not close.
MODIFIED BLOCK LETTER 2
LONGHURST LETTER 2
1. Now change the LONGHURST letter to OPEN PUNCTUATION with no paragraphs indented. Keep it in MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE.
2. Resave it under Longhurst2.
3. At the bottom, label your letter LONGHURST2 and print.
MAKE SURE YOU SIGN EACH LETTER WITH THE WRITER'S NAME AFTER YOU HAVE PRINTED IT.
LONGHURST RUBRICS
DECKER INSTRUCTIONS
MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE
GRADY DECKER LETTER
Format: Modified Block; paragraphs not indented
Punctuation: Mixed
Save as: Decker
Letterhead: Western Business Machines, 204 Ontario Drive, Portland, OR 21902
Date: Use current date
Mr. Grady M. Decker/AFT Laboratories/407 Groton Street/Hartford, CT 06106
Dear Mr. Decker
Because I have worked previously with a company similar to yours, Lehman asked me to respond to your inquiry about typing letters in the modified block style.
This letter, Mr. Decker, is an example of one that has been typed in modified block style without indented paragraphs. Notice that all lines except the date and complimentary close are “blocked;” that is, they begin at the left margin. However, a modified block letter may have the paragraphs indented.
The spacing between parts of business letters is standard and should be carefully observed. Notice the placement of this average length letter. For a short or long letter, the date is raised or lowered and the length of writing line changed.
I am happy to enclose our booklet on the subject of letter styles and special features of business letters.
Sincerely yours
(Your Name)
Consultant
df
Enclosure
DECKER RUBRIC
Elements
Business letters (in the United States) usually contain the following elements, in order:
• Sender's address & contact information
• Date of writing
• Recipient's name, title, company, & address
• Salutation/greeting
• Subject
• Message (body of the letter)
• Valediction/closing
• Sender's signature
• Sender's name, title, company
In some situations, a business letter may also include the following optional information:
• Enclosures (Encl.: or Enc.:)
• Carbon Copy Recipients (cc:)
• Reference Initials (of the typist, if different from original author of letter)
Line Spacing
In general, each element or paragraph of the letter is followed by a single blank line, except:
• the date, followed by three or four blank lines;
• the final content paragraph, followed by two blank lines;
• the valediction/closing, followed by three or four blank lines (enough for the sender to sign the letter); and
• the sender's title, followed by two blank lines.
Font Formatting
No special character or font formatting is used, except for the subject line, which is usually underlined
Punctuation
The salutation/greeting is generally followed by a comma, although in the United States a colon is often preferred. The valediction/closing is followed by a comma.
Example Template
[SENDER'S NAME]
[SENDER'S ADDRESS]
(optional[SENDER'S PHONE]
(optional[SENDER'S E-MAIL]
[DATE]
[RECIPIENT W/O PREFIX]
[RECIPIENT'S TITLE]
[RECIPIENT'S COMPANY]
[RECIPIENT'S ADDRESS]
(Optional) Attention [DEPARTMENT/PERSON],
Dear [RECIPIENT W/ PREFIX]:
Re: [SUBJECT] [First Salutation then Subject in Business letters]
[CONTENT.]
[CONTENT.]
[VALEDICTION (Sincerely, Respectfully, Regards, etc.)],
[SENDER]
[SENDER'S TITLE]
Enclosures ([NUMBER OF ENCLOSURES])
cc: [CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]
[CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]
Indentation Formats
Business letters generally conform to one of four indentation formats: Block, Semi-Block, Modified Block, and Modified Semi-Block. Put simply, "Semi-" means that the first lines of paragraphs are indented; "Modified" means that the sender's address, date, and closing are significantly indented.
Block
In a Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are not indented. 3) parts and paragraphs are separated by double or triple spacing.
Semi-Block
In a Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are indented.
Modified Block
In a Modified Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are not indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented three inches from the left margin, but can be set anywhere to the right of the middle of the page, as long as all three elements are indented to the same position.
Modified Semi-Block
In a Modified Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented by: Richard Babon
Guide to Basic Business Letters
The basics of good business letter writing are easy to learn. The following guide provides the phrases that are usually found in any standard business letter. These phrases are used as a kind of frame and introduction to the content of business letters. At the end of this guide, you will find links to sites that give tips on the difficult part of writing successful business letters – arguing your business objective. By using these standard phrases, you can give a professional tone to your English business letters.
The Start
1. Dear Personnel Director,
2. Dear Sir or Madam: (use if you don't know who you are writing to)
3. Dear Dr, Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms Smith: (use if you know who you are writing to, and have a formal relationship with - VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss)
4. Dear Frank: (use if the person is a close business contact or friend)
The Reference
1. With reference to your advertisement in the Times, your letter of 23 rd March,
your phone call today,
2. Thank you for your letter of March 5 th .
The Reason for Writing
1. I am writing to inquire about…
…apologizing for
…I am confirming that
Requesting
1. Could you possibly?
2. I would be grateful if you could…
Agreeing to Requests
1. I would be delighted to…
Giving Bad News
1. Unfortunately…
2. I am afraid that…
Enclosing Documents
1. I am enclosing…
2. Please find enclosed…
3. Enclosed you will find…
Closing Remarks
1. Thank you for your help Please contact us again if we can help in any way.
…There are any problems…(or)
…you have any questions…
Reference to Future Contact
1. I look forward to ...
…hearing from you soon.
…meeting you next Tuesday.
…seeing you next Thursday.
The Finish
1. Yours faithfully, … (If you don't know the name of the person you're writing to)
2. Yours sincerely, … (If you know the name of the person you're writing to)
3. Best wishes, …
4. Best regards, … (If the person is a close business contact or friend)
Sample Letter
Here is a sample letter using some of these forms:
Ken's Cheese House
34 Chatley Avenue
Seattle, WA 98765
Tel:
Fax:
Email: kenny@cheese.com
October 23, 2006
Fred Flintstone
Sales Manager
Cheese Specialists Inc.
456 Rubble Road
Rockville, IL
Dear Mr Flintstone:
With reference to our telephone conversation today, I am writing to confirm your order for: 120 x Cheddar Deluxe Ref. No. 856
The order will be shipped within three days via UPS and should arrive at your store in about 10 days.
Please contact us again if we can help in any way.
Yours sincerely,
Kenneth Beare
Director of Ken's Cheese House
How to Write a Formal Business Letter
The business-letter format is very important for communicating formally with a company. You shouldn't write in the same voice as when you write family or friends, a business letter needs to be more formal. These steps describe the full block format, in which all lines start at the left.
Instructions
Things you will need:
Envelopes
Computers
Printers
Printer Paper
Postage Stamps
1. Type the letter using a word processor. Formal letters should not be written by hand.
2. Use your own letterhead. If you don't have letterhead, use formal, 8 1/2-inch-by-11-inch stationery with a matching envelope. Avoid store-bought note cards.
3. If you don't have preprinted letterhead, type your name, title and return address four to six lines down from the top of the page.
4. Type the date two to six lines down from the letterhead or return address. Three lines below is the standard.
5. Choose your alignment: left aligned or justified on both sides.
6. Skip two lines and type the recipient's full name, business title and address, aligned at the left margin. Precede the name with Mr., Ms. or Dr. as appropriate.
7. Skip two to four lines and follow with your greeting, again using the formal name and closing with a colon "Dear Mr. Jones:" for example.
8. Skip two more lines and begin your letter. Introduce yourself in the first paragraph, if the recipient does not already know you. Examples: 'We recently met at a seminar at the Biltmore' or 'I recently purchased an insurance plan from your company.'
9. Continue with the body of the letter, stating your main purpose for writing. This may be to lodge a complaint, compliment the business on its products or services, or request information. Be as brief and concise as possible.
10. Skip two lines and conclude the letter with 'Sincerely,' 'Thank you' or 'Best wishes,' followed by a comma.
11. Leave at least four blank lines for your signature, then type your name and title. Sign the letter in ink in the space created.
Kinds of Business Letters
Business letters should sound professional and contain no grammatical errors.
Business letters can initiate communication with a prospect, a client or another business. They can also be written in response to a request. Written on company letterhead and following a block letter style, business letters may be written by associates, managers and executives alike. They should sound professional and contain no grammatical errors.
Letter of Intent
1. A letter of intent spells out in detail the circumstances under which an agreement between the writer and the reader would be made. It is not a contract; it merely states the intent to enter an agreement.
Sales Letter
2. Written to persuade the recipient to buy a product or service, sales letters are usually a part of a direct-mail marketing campaign and often are accompanied by packets, brochures, illustrations and/or catalogs.
Information Request Letter
3. In an information request letter, the writer requests information and explains why he needs it and/or how it will be used.
Information Response Letter
4. An information response letter is written in response to a request. Its purpose is to answer questions or provide requested information. It also may promote the business's products or services.
Customer Claim Response Letter
5. In a customer claim response letter, the writer attempts to rectify the complaint spelled out in the customer's claim letter. It should regain the recipient's confidence in the business and promote it.
Order Request Letter
6. An order request is a letter in which a purchase is authorized. It lists the items being ordered vertically and typically includes the quantity, order number, description and unit price of each item.
Senin, 03 Januari 2011
God (Part Five)
Arguments for Atheism
Though the history of the philosophy of religion has been dominated by attempts to prove the existence of God, there also exist a number of arguments that seek to disprove theism. These range from a priori arguments that the concept of God is logically incoherent, to a posteriori arguments that the world is not the way that it would be if God existed. The atheistic proofs section surveys these arguments for atheism.
Arguments for Atheism
Within the Arguments for Atheism section, the arguments are arranged under the following headings: The Presumption of Atheism, The Problem of Evil, Problems with Divine Omnipotence (including the paradox of the stone), Problems with Divine Omniscience, Problems with Divine Justice, Problems with Immortality, Problems with Original Sin, Problems with Petitionary Prayer, The Argument from Autonomy, The Psychogenesis of Religion, and Religion and Memetics.
The Presumption of Atheism
Atheists often suggest that theirs is the default position, that there is a presumption of atheism. This places the burden of proof on the theist; if the theist is unable to make a persuasive case for the existence of God, then the atheist is justified in his atheism. The case for the presumption of atheism may be made in two ways, one resulting in a presumption of weak atheism, and the other in a presumption of strong atheism.
The Problem of Evil
The problem of evil is the problem of reconciling the existence of an omniscient, omnipotent and benevolent God with the existence of a world full of evil and suffering. If God is omniscient then he knows how to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering. If God is omnipotent then he is able to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering. If God is benevolent then he wants to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering. But if God knows how to, is able to and wants to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering, then why does he not do so? The simplest answer is that God does not do so because he does not exist. This is by far the most popular argument for atheism.
Problems With Divine Omnipotence
The doctrine of divine omnipotence is the doctrine that God is all-powerful. It is sometimes argued, however, that the concept of omnipotence is paradoxical, logically incoherent, and so that it is logically impossible that there be any being that is omnipotent. This position, if it can be sustained, precludes the existence of God.
Problems with Divine Omniscience
The doctrine of divine omniscience is the doctrine that God is all-knowing. The doctrine of divine omniscience, though, faces several objections; there are a number of philosophical arguments that purport to demonstrate that God cannot possibly know everything. These include arguments that the doctrine of divine omniscience is logically incoherent, that it is inconsistent with the further Christian doctrine of divine impeccability (i.e. the doctrine that God cannot sin), and that it is refuted by the fact of human freedom. If any of these arguments is successful, then there can be no omniscient God.
Problems with Divine Justice
The doctrine of divine justice is also subject to criticism. First of all, it appears to conflict with the idea that God is forgiving. A just God sees that each person gets what he or she deserves; a forgiving God sees that some people’s sins go unpunished, that some people don’t get what they deserve. Second, the Christian view of heaven and hell appear in many ways to be unjust. Hell, for instance, appears to inflict an infinitely great punishment upon those who are sent there. How, though, can any finite sin deserve infinite punishment? Just punishments and rewards are proportionate to the badness or goodness of the person that deserves them. Heaven and hell though, are all or nothing, and so cannot be just.
Problems with Immortality
Even if we can make sense of the justice of heaven and hell, there remains a further problem: immortality. Death, by definition, involves the destruction of a person; if a person is not destroyed by death then they did not die. Once destroyed, though, it is unclear whether a person can be recreated. It is possible, no doubt, for there to be a subsequent person, like them in every respect, but there is no reason to think that that will be the very same person that died, rather than merely a replica of them.
Problems with Petitionary Prayer
A further doctrinal problem with Christianity concerns petitionary prayer, prayer in which we request (petition) that God do something for us. God’s omniscience implies that he will already have taken all of the information about our needs and desires into account when deciding what to do. His benevolence implies that he will act in our best interests unless there is a good reason not to (and if there is such a reason, our prayers will not remove it). Prayer, then, should never change God’s mind; petitionary prayer should never work.
The Argument from Autonomy
The argument from autonomy is the argument that the existence of morally autonomous agents is inconsistent with the existence of God, and so that the fact that morally autonomous agents do exist disproves the existence of God. God, if he exists, is worthy of worship. If a being is truly worthy of worship, though, then he is entitled to our unconditional obedience. Moral agents, however, cannot be required to give unconditional obedience to any agent. Moral agency requires autonomy, and so the idea of a moral duty to give up one’s autonomy is incoherent; in giving up one’s autonomy one would cease to be a moral agent so would cease to have moral duties at all. We cannot, therefore, have a duty of unconditional obedience to any agent, and there therefore cannot be any agent that worthy of worship. There can therefore be no God.
The Psychogenesis of Religion
The psychology of religion seeks to explain how patterns of thought in the human mind give rise to religious belief, to give a naturalistic account of religion based on human psychology. Psychology is thus used to explain away religious belief. The most influential critics of religion to have used this approach are Ludwig Feuerbach and Sigmund Freud.
Religion and Memetics
A final critique of religion comes from the field of memetics, and the suggestion that there is a God meme. Memetics seeks to apply the theory of evolution not to biological organisms but to ideas. Ideas, like animals, replicate themselves and compete for survival. The same process of natural selection that ensures that only the fittest animals survive will therefore also ensure that only the fittest ideas survive. Fitness of ideas, though, need not be a guide to truth; fitness is simply the ability to survive and reproduce. If the memetic critique of religion is right, then the success of religion can be fully explained by its preference of faith to reason, and its emphasis on evangelism.
Though the history of the philosophy of religion has been dominated by attempts to prove the existence of God, there also exist a number of arguments that seek to disprove theism. These range from a priori arguments that the concept of God is logically incoherent, to a posteriori arguments that the world is not the way that it would be if God existed. The atheistic proofs section surveys these arguments for atheism.
Arguments for Atheism
Within the Arguments for Atheism section, the arguments are arranged under the following headings: The Presumption of Atheism, The Problem of Evil, Problems with Divine Omnipotence (including the paradox of the stone), Problems with Divine Omniscience, Problems with Divine Justice, Problems with Immortality, Problems with Original Sin, Problems with Petitionary Prayer, The Argument from Autonomy, The Psychogenesis of Religion, and Religion and Memetics.
The Presumption of Atheism
Atheists often suggest that theirs is the default position, that there is a presumption of atheism. This places the burden of proof on the theist; if the theist is unable to make a persuasive case for the existence of God, then the atheist is justified in his atheism. The case for the presumption of atheism may be made in two ways, one resulting in a presumption of weak atheism, and the other in a presumption of strong atheism.
The Problem of Evil
The problem of evil is the problem of reconciling the existence of an omniscient, omnipotent and benevolent God with the existence of a world full of evil and suffering. If God is omniscient then he knows how to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering. If God is omnipotent then he is able to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering. If God is benevolent then he wants to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering. But if God knows how to, is able to and wants to bring it about that there is neither evil nor suffering, then why does he not do so? The simplest answer is that God does not do so because he does not exist. This is by far the most popular argument for atheism.
Problems With Divine Omnipotence
The doctrine of divine omnipotence is the doctrine that God is all-powerful. It is sometimes argued, however, that the concept of omnipotence is paradoxical, logically incoherent, and so that it is logically impossible that there be any being that is omnipotent. This position, if it can be sustained, precludes the existence of God.
Problems with Divine Omniscience
The doctrine of divine omniscience is the doctrine that God is all-knowing. The doctrine of divine omniscience, though, faces several objections; there are a number of philosophical arguments that purport to demonstrate that God cannot possibly know everything. These include arguments that the doctrine of divine omniscience is logically incoherent, that it is inconsistent with the further Christian doctrine of divine impeccability (i.e. the doctrine that God cannot sin), and that it is refuted by the fact of human freedom. If any of these arguments is successful, then there can be no omniscient God.
Problems with Divine Justice
The doctrine of divine justice is also subject to criticism. First of all, it appears to conflict with the idea that God is forgiving. A just God sees that each person gets what he or she deserves; a forgiving God sees that some people’s sins go unpunished, that some people don’t get what they deserve. Second, the Christian view of heaven and hell appear in many ways to be unjust. Hell, for instance, appears to inflict an infinitely great punishment upon those who are sent there. How, though, can any finite sin deserve infinite punishment? Just punishments and rewards are proportionate to the badness or goodness of the person that deserves them. Heaven and hell though, are all or nothing, and so cannot be just.
Problems with Immortality
Even if we can make sense of the justice of heaven and hell, there remains a further problem: immortality. Death, by definition, involves the destruction of a person; if a person is not destroyed by death then they did not die. Once destroyed, though, it is unclear whether a person can be recreated. It is possible, no doubt, for there to be a subsequent person, like them in every respect, but there is no reason to think that that will be the very same person that died, rather than merely a replica of them.
Problems with Petitionary Prayer
A further doctrinal problem with Christianity concerns petitionary prayer, prayer in which we request (petition) that God do something for us. God’s omniscience implies that he will already have taken all of the information about our needs and desires into account when deciding what to do. His benevolence implies that he will act in our best interests unless there is a good reason not to (and if there is such a reason, our prayers will not remove it). Prayer, then, should never change God’s mind; petitionary prayer should never work.
The Argument from Autonomy
The argument from autonomy is the argument that the existence of morally autonomous agents is inconsistent with the existence of God, and so that the fact that morally autonomous agents do exist disproves the existence of God. God, if he exists, is worthy of worship. If a being is truly worthy of worship, though, then he is entitled to our unconditional obedience. Moral agents, however, cannot be required to give unconditional obedience to any agent. Moral agency requires autonomy, and so the idea of a moral duty to give up one’s autonomy is incoherent; in giving up one’s autonomy one would cease to be a moral agent so would cease to have moral duties at all. We cannot, therefore, have a duty of unconditional obedience to any agent, and there therefore cannot be any agent that worthy of worship. There can therefore be no God.
The Psychogenesis of Religion
The psychology of religion seeks to explain how patterns of thought in the human mind give rise to religious belief, to give a naturalistic account of religion based on human psychology. Psychology is thus used to explain away religious belief. The most influential critics of religion to have used this approach are Ludwig Feuerbach and Sigmund Freud.
Religion and Memetics
A final critique of religion comes from the field of memetics, and the suggestion that there is a God meme. Memetics seeks to apply the theory of evolution not to biological organisms but to ideas. Ideas, like animals, replicate themselves and compete for survival. The same process of natural selection that ensures that only the fittest animals survive will therefore also ensure that only the fittest ideas survive. Fitness of ideas, though, need not be a guide to truth; fitness is simply the ability to survive and reproduce. If the memetic critique of religion is right, then the success of religion can be fully explained by its preference of faith to reason, and its emphasis on evangelism.
God (Part Four)
The Argument from Incomprehensibility
There is a strong theistic tradition that holds that our ability to comprehend God is limited. Our concepts are derived from our experiences, and our experiences are of flawed and finite existence; we therefore lack the conceptual tools necessary to understand what God is really like. God is incomprehensible to us.
According to this tradition, when we apply our human concepts to God, describing him in terms that we have derived from our experience of the world, we must take great care. For God is neither flawed nor finite, and so our standard categories of thought do not apply to him. When we say that God is good, for example, we must remember that divine goodness is not the same thing as human goodness. Because God’s being transcends our experiences of the mundane, he transcends our understanding, and we can describe him only in borrowed language which fails to accurately describe him.
In stressing God’s incomprehensibility, the distance between his being and our categories of thought, this tradition gives ammunition to the agnostic. To the extent that God is beyond our understanding, knowledge of God is presumably also beyond our understanding. The greater the distance between God and that which we have known, the more difficult it will be to answer the question as to whether or not God exists. If God is truly incomprehensible, then how can we affirm either theism or atheism?
Blaise Pascal, famous for his pragmatic argument for belief in God, Pascal’s Wager, offered an argument for agnosticism along these lines. Though Pascal thought that belief in God was justified because it is in our interests, he thought it impossible to establish God’s existence by reason.
Pascal first argued for agnosticism concerning God’s nature:
“We know that there is an infinite, and are ignorant of its nature. As we know it to be false that numbers are finite, it is therefore true that there is an infinity in number. But we do not know what it is. It is false that it is even, it is false that it is odd; for the addition of a unit can make no change in its nature. Yet it is a number, and every number is odd or even (this is certainly true of every finite number). So we may well know that there is a God without knowing what He is. Is there not one substantial truth, seeing there are so many things which are not the truth itself?” [Blaise Pascal, Pensées, Section III]
Having argued that we cannot know God’s nature, Pascal then argued that this agnosticism should be extended to the question of God’s existence:
“We know then the existence and nature of the finite, because we also are finite and have extension. We know the existence of the infinite and are ignorant of its nature, because it has extension like us, but not limits like us. But we know neither the existence nor the nature of God, because He has neither extension nor limits.” [Blaise Pascal, Pensées, Section III]
This argument for agnosticism is, of course, ultimately set aside by Pascal. We can, he suggests, believe in God’s existence by faith, and we can be justified in our faith on pragmatic grounds. Nevertheless, his argument that our finitude prevents us from knowing of God’s existence is independent of his pragmatic argument for belief in God, and is the kind of argument that underpins much agnosticism.
There is a strong theistic tradition that holds that our ability to comprehend God is limited. Our concepts are derived from our experiences, and our experiences are of flawed and finite existence; we therefore lack the conceptual tools necessary to understand what God is really like. God is incomprehensible to us.
According to this tradition, when we apply our human concepts to God, describing him in terms that we have derived from our experience of the world, we must take great care. For God is neither flawed nor finite, and so our standard categories of thought do not apply to him. When we say that God is good, for example, we must remember that divine goodness is not the same thing as human goodness. Because God’s being transcends our experiences of the mundane, he transcends our understanding, and we can describe him only in borrowed language which fails to accurately describe him.
In stressing God’s incomprehensibility, the distance between his being and our categories of thought, this tradition gives ammunition to the agnostic. To the extent that God is beyond our understanding, knowledge of God is presumably also beyond our understanding. The greater the distance between God and that which we have known, the more difficult it will be to answer the question as to whether or not God exists. If God is truly incomprehensible, then how can we affirm either theism or atheism?
Blaise Pascal, famous for his pragmatic argument for belief in God, Pascal’s Wager, offered an argument for agnosticism along these lines. Though Pascal thought that belief in God was justified because it is in our interests, he thought it impossible to establish God’s existence by reason.
Pascal first argued for agnosticism concerning God’s nature:
“We know that there is an infinite, and are ignorant of its nature. As we know it to be false that numbers are finite, it is therefore true that there is an infinity in number. But we do not know what it is. It is false that it is even, it is false that it is odd; for the addition of a unit can make no change in its nature. Yet it is a number, and every number is odd or even (this is certainly true of every finite number). So we may well know that there is a God without knowing what He is. Is there not one substantial truth, seeing there are so many things which are not the truth itself?” [Blaise Pascal, Pensées, Section III]
Having argued that we cannot know God’s nature, Pascal then argued that this agnosticism should be extended to the question of God’s existence:
“We know then the existence and nature of the finite, because we also are finite and have extension. We know the existence of the infinite and are ignorant of its nature, because it has extension like us, but not limits like us. But we know neither the existence nor the nature of God, because He has neither extension nor limits.” [Blaise Pascal, Pensées, Section III]
This argument for agnosticism is, of course, ultimately set aside by Pascal. We can, he suggests, believe in God’s existence by faith, and we can be justified in our faith on pragmatic grounds. Nevertheless, his argument that our finitude prevents us from knowing of God’s existence is independent of his pragmatic argument for belief in God, and is the kind of argument that underpins much agnosticism.
God (Part Three)
The Argument from Uncertainty
Many describe themselves as agnostics because they believe that certain knowledge is impossible in religious matters. Whatever evidence there might be for or against the existence of God, both God’s existence and God’s non-existence remain conceivable. If we form a belief on uncertain evidence then we might turn out to be wrong. It is therefore better for us to withhold our judgement, to remain agnostic.
This argument is not especially persuasive. Though it is plausible to think that we cannot ever attain certainty as to whether or not God exists, this is true of all matters; nothing can be proved beyond all doubt. Descartes’ argument from error establishes this: I have made errors of reasoning in the past, even concerning simple matters, and so can on no occasion be certain that I am not in error again. In spite of this unavoidable uncertainty, we nevertheless form beliefs. Why should we not do the same in matters of religion?
A more subtle version of the argument from uncertainty has an answer to this question: because religion is so important. Religion matters, and that is why we ought to be particularly careful in forming our religious beliefs.
The more important it is to be right about a matter, the more cautious we should be in forming our beliefs. If a matter is of great importance, as religion is, then our evidential standards concerning it should be set high, we should demand strong evidence before settling on what we believe.
In fact, religion is of unquantifiable importance—there is nothing more important than being right about the question of God’s existence—and we should therefore set our evidential standards infinitely high.
If this is correct, then the standard of evidence required for justified religious belief is so high that it can never be satisfied; we can never have enough evidence to form beliefs about such questions as whether God exists. In this way, the importance of religion works to suggest that we can never have religious knowledge, that we ought to remain agnostic.
Many describe themselves as agnostics because they believe that certain knowledge is impossible in religious matters. Whatever evidence there might be for or against the existence of God, both God’s existence and God’s non-existence remain conceivable. If we form a belief on uncertain evidence then we might turn out to be wrong. It is therefore better for us to withhold our judgement, to remain agnostic.
This argument is not especially persuasive. Though it is plausible to think that we cannot ever attain certainty as to whether or not God exists, this is true of all matters; nothing can be proved beyond all doubt. Descartes’ argument from error establishes this: I have made errors of reasoning in the past, even concerning simple matters, and so can on no occasion be certain that I am not in error again. In spite of this unavoidable uncertainty, we nevertheless form beliefs. Why should we not do the same in matters of religion?
A more subtle version of the argument from uncertainty has an answer to this question: because religion is so important. Religion matters, and that is why we ought to be particularly careful in forming our religious beliefs.
The more important it is to be right about a matter, the more cautious we should be in forming our beliefs. If a matter is of great importance, as religion is, then our evidential standards concerning it should be set high, we should demand strong evidence before settling on what we believe.
In fact, religion is of unquantifiable importance—there is nothing more important than being right about the question of God’s existence—and we should therefore set our evidential standards infinitely high.
If this is correct, then the standard of evidence required for justified religious belief is so high that it can never be satisfied; we can never have enough evidence to form beliefs about such questions as whether God exists. In this way, the importance of religion works to suggest that we can never have religious knowledge, that we ought to remain agnostic.
God (Part Two)
Arguments for Agnosticism
Agnosticism is the view that knowledge of whether or not God exists is unattainable, that we cannot be justified in believing either that God does exist or that he does not. There are two approaches to arguing for this view: first, it can be argued that knowledge of God’s existence is unattainable because no evidence could ever justify religious belief; second, it can be argued that knowledge of God’s existence is unattainable because evidence of God’s existence is unattainable. One argument of each kind is considered here.
The Argument from Uncertainty
The argument from uncertainty takes the fact that we cannot achieve certainty as to whether God exists as justification for agnosticism. Whatever evidence there is for theism and for atheism is fallible, the argument suggests, and therefore ought to be rejected. Of course, we accept fallible evidence as sufficient justification for many of our beliefs, so this argument will only be persuasive if there is some reason to require better evidence when answering religious questions than we require in these other cases. One possible reason for so doing is the importance of being right concerning the existence of God.
The Argument from Incomprehensibility
An alternative approach to arguing for agnosticism is the argument from incomprehensibility. Theists have often been content to say that we are unable to comprehend God, that his being transcends our mundane experiences and that our concepts, which are derived from such experiences, cannot be used to describe him. If true, then this might be thought to count in favour of agnosticism; if we cannot comprehend God, then how can we reason with any confidence concerning his existence?
Agnosticism is the view that knowledge of whether or not God exists is unattainable, that we cannot be justified in believing either that God does exist or that he does not. There are two approaches to arguing for this view: first, it can be argued that knowledge of God’s existence is unattainable because no evidence could ever justify religious belief; second, it can be argued that knowledge of God’s existence is unattainable because evidence of God’s existence is unattainable. One argument of each kind is considered here.
The Argument from Uncertainty
The argument from uncertainty takes the fact that we cannot achieve certainty as to whether God exists as justification for agnosticism. Whatever evidence there is for theism and for atheism is fallible, the argument suggests, and therefore ought to be rejected. Of course, we accept fallible evidence as sufficient justification for many of our beliefs, so this argument will only be persuasive if there is some reason to require better evidence when answering religious questions than we require in these other cases. One possible reason for so doing is the importance of being right concerning the existence of God.
The Argument from Incomprehensibility
An alternative approach to arguing for agnosticism is the argument from incomprehensibility. Theists have often been content to say that we are unable to comprehend God, that his being transcends our mundane experiences and that our concepts, which are derived from such experiences, cannot be used to describe him. If true, then this might be thought to count in favour of agnosticism; if we cannot comprehend God, then how can we reason with any confidence concerning his existence?
God (Part One)
Arguments for the Existence of God
Over the centuries, there have been many attempts by religious philosophers to prove the existence of God, and a canon of classic arguments has been developed. Not all of these arguments have their origins in Christian philosophy; Jewish and Muslim philosophers have made significant contributions to the philosophy of religion, and both Plato and Aristotle have influenced its development.
Recent decades have seen a rise in interest in natural theology and the philosophy of religion. Each of the classic theistic proofs has been revived and refined, presented in revised form and defended afresh. Whether any of these arguments for the existence of God is successful, of course, remains controversial.
The Arguments for the Existence of God section sets out to explain each of the common philosophical arguments for theism, and so to explore the case for the existence of God.
Arguments for the Existence of God
The arguments themselves are arranged under the following headings: Pascal’s Wager, The Ontological Argument, The Cosmological Argument (including the first cause argument), The Teleological Argument (i.e. the argument from design), The Moral Argument, and The Argument from Religious Experience.
There are, however, two preliminary issues to be dealt with: the intrinsic probability of the existence of God, which will bear on the degree of suspicion with which we view the purported theistic proofs, and reformed epistemology, which holds that belief in God can be rational even if it cannot be supported by evidence.
Pascal’s Wager
Pascal’s Wager is an argument for belief in God based not on an appeal to evidence that God exists but rather based on an appeal to self-interest. It is in our interests to believe in God, the argument suggests, and it is therefore rational for us to do so.
The claim that it is in our interests to believe in God is supported by a consideration of the possible consequences of belief and unbelief. If we believe in God, the argument runs, then if he exists then we will receive an infinite reward in heaven while if he does not then we have lost little or nothing.
If we do not believe in God, the argument continues, then if he exists then we will receive an infinite punishment in hell while he does not then we will have gained little or nothing.
Either receiving an infinite reward in heaven or losing little or nothing is clearly preferable to either receiving an infinite punishment in hell or gaining little or nothing. It is therefore in our interests, and so rational, to believe in God.
The Ontological Argument
The ontological argument is an argument that attempts to prove the existence of God through abstract reasoning alone. The argument begins with an explication of the concept of God. Part of what we mean when we speak of “God” is “perfect being”; that is what the word “God” means. A God that exists, of course, is better than a God that doesn’t. To speak of God as a perfect being is therefore to imply that he exists. If God’s perfection is a part of the concept of God, though, and if God’s perfection implies God’s existence, then God’s existence is implied by the concept of God. When we speak of “God” we cannot but speak of a being that exists. To say that God does not exist is to contradict oneself; it is literally to speak nonsense.
The Cosmological Argument
The cosmological argument is the argument from the existence of the world or universe to the existence of a being that brought it into and keeps it in existence. It comes in two forms, one modal (having to do with possibility and the other temporal (having to do with time).
The modal cosmological argument, the argument from contingency, suggests that because the universe might not have existed (i.e. is contingent), we need some explanation of why it does. Whereever there are two possibilities, it suggests, something must determine which of those possibilities is realised. As the universe is contingent, then, there must be some reason for its existence; it must have a cause. In fact, the only kind of being whose existence requires no explanation is a necessary being, a being that could not have failed to exist. The ultimate cause of everything must therefore be a necessary being, such as God.
The temporal kalam cosmological argument, begins by arguing that the past is finite. The idea that the universe has an infinite past stretching back in time into infinity is, the argument notes, both philosophically and scientifically problematic; all indications are that there is a point in time at which the universe began to exist. This beginning must either have been caused or uncaused. It cannot have been uncaused, though, for the idea of an uncaused event is absurd; nothing comes from nothing. The universe must therefore have been brought into existence by something outside it. The kalam argument thus confirms one element of Christianity, the doctrine of Crea
Over the centuries, there have been many attempts by religious philosophers to prove the existence of God, and a canon of classic arguments has been developed. Not all of these arguments have their origins in Christian philosophy; Jewish and Muslim philosophers have made significant contributions to the philosophy of religion, and both Plato and Aristotle have influenced its development.
Recent decades have seen a rise in interest in natural theology and the philosophy of religion. Each of the classic theistic proofs has been revived and refined, presented in revised form and defended afresh. Whether any of these arguments for the existence of God is successful, of course, remains controversial.
The Arguments for the Existence of God section sets out to explain each of the common philosophical arguments for theism, and so to explore the case for the existence of God.
Arguments for the Existence of God
The arguments themselves are arranged under the following headings: Pascal’s Wager, The Ontological Argument, The Cosmological Argument (including the first cause argument), The Teleological Argument (i.e. the argument from design), The Moral Argument, and The Argument from Religious Experience.
There are, however, two preliminary issues to be dealt with: the intrinsic probability of the existence of God, which will bear on the degree of suspicion with which we view the purported theistic proofs, and reformed epistemology, which holds that belief in God can be rational even if it cannot be supported by evidence.
Pascal’s Wager
Pascal’s Wager is an argument for belief in God based not on an appeal to evidence that God exists but rather based on an appeal to self-interest. It is in our interests to believe in God, the argument suggests, and it is therefore rational for us to do so.
The claim that it is in our interests to believe in God is supported by a consideration of the possible consequences of belief and unbelief. If we believe in God, the argument runs, then if he exists then we will receive an infinite reward in heaven while if he does not then we have lost little or nothing.
If we do not believe in God, the argument continues, then if he exists then we will receive an infinite punishment in hell while he does not then we will have gained little or nothing.
Either receiving an infinite reward in heaven or losing little or nothing is clearly preferable to either receiving an infinite punishment in hell or gaining little or nothing. It is therefore in our interests, and so rational, to believe in God.
The Ontological Argument
The ontological argument is an argument that attempts to prove the existence of God through abstract reasoning alone. The argument begins with an explication of the concept of God. Part of what we mean when we speak of “God” is “perfect being”; that is what the word “God” means. A God that exists, of course, is better than a God that doesn’t. To speak of God as a perfect being is therefore to imply that he exists. If God’s perfection is a part of the concept of God, though, and if God’s perfection implies God’s existence, then God’s existence is implied by the concept of God. When we speak of “God” we cannot but speak of a being that exists. To say that God does not exist is to contradict oneself; it is literally to speak nonsense.
The Cosmological Argument
The cosmological argument is the argument from the existence of the world or universe to the existence of a being that brought it into and keeps it in existence. It comes in two forms, one modal (having to do with possibility and the other temporal (having to do with time).
The modal cosmological argument, the argument from contingency, suggests that because the universe might not have existed (i.e. is contingent), we need some explanation of why it does. Whereever there are two possibilities, it suggests, something must determine which of those possibilities is realised. As the universe is contingent, then, there must be some reason for its existence; it must have a cause. In fact, the only kind of being whose existence requires no explanation is a necessary being, a being that could not have failed to exist. The ultimate cause of everything must therefore be a necessary being, such as God.
The temporal kalam cosmological argument, begins by arguing that the past is finite. The idea that the universe has an infinite past stretching back in time into infinity is, the argument notes, both philosophically and scientifically problematic; all indications are that there is a point in time at which the universe began to exist. This beginning must either have been caused or uncaused. It cannot have been uncaused, though, for the idea of an uncaused event is absurd; nothing comes from nothing. The universe must therefore have been brought into existence by something outside it. The kalam argument thus confirms one element of Christianity, the doctrine of Crea
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